To
The Principal,
Government College,
A.B.C
Sir,
It is respectfully state that I am a student of 2nd year in your college. My father is a poor worker with a family of five children. His income is very small. So we have to live hand to mouth. I cannot continue my education in college further without some sort of fee concession.
My academic record is very good and i am one of the most brilliant student of my class. I am a good debater of English and Urdu. I am president of English Society. I am very fond of education. I got admission in Economics and English. My father can not bear my college expenses.
Please, grant me a full fee concession so that I would continue my education.
Dated: August 29, 2011.
Your obediently,
X.Y.Z
Roll No
Posted by: Wasim Javed
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Write an application to the principal for the remission of fine
To
The Principal,
Government College,
A.B.C
Sir,
With due respect it is stated that i have been fined Rs.100 for not attending the classes regularly. I could not attend college for two weeks because i had been suffering form malaria. The doctor advised me full be rest. My house is far away from the city and there was no one to carry my application to the college. So, I could not send any application or medical certificate in time. My father is a poor framer and i can not pay the amount of a hundred rupees. Please, keeping my condition in view remit my fine and oblige.
Thanking you.
Dated: August 29,2011.
Your obediently,
X.Y.Z
Roll No
Posted by: Wasim Javed
The Principal,
Government College,
A.B.C
Sir,
With due respect it is stated that i have been fined Rs.100 for not attending the classes regularly. I could not attend college for two weeks because i had been suffering form malaria. The doctor advised me full be rest. My house is far away from the city and there was no one to carry my application to the college. So, I could not send any application or medical certificate in time. My father is a poor framer and i can not pay the amount of a hundred rupees. Please, keeping my condition in view remit my fine and oblige.
Thanking you.
Dated: August 29,2011.
Your obediently,
X.Y.Z
Roll No
Posted by: Wasim Javed
Labels:
Applications
Write and application to the principal of your college for the grant of character certificate
To
The Principal,
Government College,
A.B.C
Sir,
I passed my B.A examination from your college this year with Roll No.00. I got 1st division in the examination obtaining 356 marks. I was a good player of the college and also the president of Urdu Literary Society of the college.
Now I want to take admission in the university. Kindly issue me a character certificate and oblige.
Dated: August 29,2011.
Yours obediently,
X.Y.Z
Roll No
Posted by: Wasim Javed
The Principal,
Government College,
A.B.C
Sir,
I passed my B.A examination from your college this year with Roll No.00. I got 1st division in the examination obtaining 356 marks. I was a good player of the college and also the president of Urdu Literary Society of the college.
Now I want to take admission in the university. Kindly issue me a character certificate and oblige.
Dated: August 29,2011.
Yours obediently,
X.Y.Z
Roll No
Posted by: Wasim Javed
Labels:
Applications
An application to the principal of your college for casual leave
To
The Principal,
Government College,
A.B.C
Sir,
It is for your kind information that i have been suffering from fever since yesterday and cannot attend the college today.
Please, grant me leave for one day i.e.. august 29, 2011, and oblige.
Dated: August 29, 2011.
Yours obediently,
X.Y.Z
Roll NO
Posted by: Wasim Javed
The Principal,
Government College,
A.B.C
Sir,
It is for your kind information that i have been suffering from fever since yesterday and cannot attend the college today.
Please, grant me leave for one day i.e.. august 29, 2011, and oblige.
Dated: August 29, 2011.
Yours obediently,
X.Y.Z
Roll NO
Posted by: Wasim Javed
Labels:
Applications
Letter to the editor about electricity failure or power breakdown in your area
Examination Hall,
A.B.C
August 29,2011.
To
The editor,
"The Pakistan Time"
Lahore.
Sir,
Through the columns of your highly esteemed paper. I want to draw the attention of the Wapda authorities to the problem of frequent electricity failure in our area that is Basti neel cot. It is summer season with intense heat. Now a days the temperature is move then 45 centigrade. Several times during the day and night electricity plays hid and seek. It disturbs our studies and all forms of other work.
Sometimes this routine of electricity causes great loss of electrical applications. The poor people of the area cannot afford this great loss in this age of dearness.
Students suffer a lot now a days because they are going to appear in B.A examination. Same is the case with the patients. They can not survive without fan in this severe season.
The Wapda authorities should do the needful for the area. They should install new transformers in place of the old ones. They should take notice of this great problem of the area and solve it.
Your truly,
X.Y.Z
Posted by: Wasim Javed
A.B.C
August 29,2011.
To
The editor,
"The Pakistan Time"
Lahore.
Sir,
Through the columns of your highly esteemed paper. I want to draw the attention of the Wapda authorities to the problem of frequent electricity failure in our area that is Basti neel cot. It is summer season with intense heat. Now a days the temperature is move then 45 centigrade. Several times during the day and night electricity plays hid and seek. It disturbs our studies and all forms of other work.
Sometimes this routine of electricity causes great loss of electrical applications. The poor people of the area cannot afford this great loss in this age of dearness.
Students suffer a lot now a days because they are going to appear in B.A examination. Same is the case with the patients. They can not survive without fan in this severe season.
The Wapda authorities should do the needful for the area. They should install new transformers in place of the old ones. They should take notice of this great problem of the area and solve it.
Your truly,
X.Y.Z
Posted by: Wasim Javed
Labels:
Letters
Letter to the editor of a newspaper about the problem of, beggars in your city
Examination Hall,
A.B.C
August 29,2011.
To
The editor
"The Dawn"
Lahore
Sir,
Through the columns of your highly esteemed paper. I want to draw the attention of the higher authorities to the problem of beggars in our city.
These days the numbers of beggars have increased in all parts of the city. No street or bazaar is free fro beggars. Even they are found in great number in hospitals and outside the school and college. The moment you come out of your home they start chasing you. Then they follow you everywhere young healthy fellows can be seen as beggars. Even small children are forced for begging by their parents. They encourage many others to become beggars because it is an easy way of earning.
Beggars also do criminal activities. They are stealing thing and cheating in homes, shops and offices. They are found involve in child lifting also. They have so many criminal gangs. The female beggars enter the houses quietly and rob the people in different ways. Child lifter gangs cut off the limbs of the lifted children and force then to sit in busy places for begging.
The government should check this social evil with iron hands and public should also co-operate with the authorities to crush this evil practice.
Your truly,
X.Y.Z
Posted by: Wasim Javed
A.B.C
August 29,2011.
To
The editor
"The Dawn"
Lahore
Sir,
Through the columns of your highly esteemed paper. I want to draw the attention of the higher authorities to the problem of beggars in our city.
These days the numbers of beggars have increased in all parts of the city. No street or bazaar is free fro beggars. Even they are found in great number in hospitals and outside the school and college. The moment you come out of your home they start chasing you. Then they follow you everywhere young healthy fellows can be seen as beggars. Even small children are forced for begging by their parents. They encourage many others to become beggars because it is an easy way of earning.
Beggars also do criminal activities. They are stealing thing and cheating in homes, shops and offices. They are found involve in child lifting also. They have so many criminal gangs. The female beggars enter the houses quietly and rob the people in different ways. Child lifter gangs cut off the limbs of the lifted children and force then to sit in busy places for begging.
The government should check this social evil with iron hands and public should also co-operate with the authorities to crush this evil practice.
Your truly,
X.Y.Z
Posted by: Wasim Javed
Labels:
Letters
Letter to the editor of a newspaper about reckless or rash driving
Examination Hall,
A.B.C
August 29,2011.
To
The editor
"The dawn",Lahore
Sir,
Now a days there is a great increase in the road accidents.They are a great danger for the public and a threat to life and property. The government should take strict action against it for the safety of the public.
The main reason of the accidents is narrow roads and fast and rash driving. The buses and wagons start a race on the roads. The drivers over take one another on risky turns and thus cause horrible accidents. In this way they become a cause for the death of innocent peoples.
The traffic police should keep a watch over the speed limit of the vehicles. There must be check posts and surprise raids. The licenses of rash drivers should be canceled and they must be fined at the spot.The passengers should also co operate with the government. The should not only refuse to travel in such buses but also repast the traffic police.
Your truly,
X.Y.Z
Posted by: Wasim Javed
A.B.C
August 29,2011.
To
The editor
"The dawn",Lahore
Sir,
Now a days there is a great increase in the road accidents.They are a great danger for the public and a threat to life and property. The government should take strict action against it for the safety of the public.
The main reason of the accidents is narrow roads and fast and rash driving. The buses and wagons start a race on the roads. The drivers over take one another on risky turns and thus cause horrible accidents. In this way they become a cause for the death of innocent peoples.
The traffic police should keep a watch over the speed limit of the vehicles. There must be check posts and surprise raids. The licenses of rash drivers should be canceled and they must be fined at the spot.The passengers should also co operate with the government. The should not only refuse to travel in such buses but also repast the traffic police.
Your truly,
X.Y.Z
Posted by: Wasim Javed
Labels:
Letters
Letter to your friend inviting him to attend the marriage ceremony of your elder sister
Examination Hall,
A.B.C
August 28, 2011.
My dear friend,
This letter will find you in the best of you health and spirit. I feel joy to inform you that the marriage of my elder sister is going to be held on 28th august 2011. I am sending you an invitation card also. It is the first happy occasion in my family. I have sent invitations cards to all of my friends and relatives. Please, come to participate in the ceremony with your family. It will add lot to our joy and happiness.
If it is possible, please, try to come four or five days before the marriage day, or at least come a day before. Inform me about you arrival, so that i may take you form the station. My mother insists on you participation with your family.
Please, pay my regards to your father and mother. Love to all.
Yours sincerely,
X.Y.Z
Posted by: Wasim Javed
A.B.C
August 28, 2011.
My dear friend,
This letter will find you in the best of you health and spirit. I feel joy to inform you that the marriage of my elder sister is going to be held on 28th august 2011. I am sending you an invitation card also. It is the first happy occasion in my family. I have sent invitations cards to all of my friends and relatives. Please, come to participate in the ceremony with your family. It will add lot to our joy and happiness.
If it is possible, please, try to come four or five days before the marriage day, or at least come a day before. Inform me about you arrival, so that i may take you form the station. My mother insists on you participation with your family.
Please, pay my regards to your father and mother. Love to all.
Yours sincerely,
X.Y.Z
Posted by: Wasim Javed
Labels:
Letters
Letter to a friend telling him about a road accident that is witnessed by you
Examination Hall,
A.B.C
August28,2011.
My dear friend,
I hope you will be fine and in good health and spirits. I am also OK and enjoying good health. Your have asked me to write to you an interesting letter which is not possible.
Yesterday, I saw a horrible road accident which was very shocking. I cannot forget it. The whole dreadful picture is in front of my eyes and still the cries of the injured are echoing in my ears.
Yesterday, I was returning from college. It was noontime and I was walking on the pavement. Suddenly I heard a big noise. I turned back as saw a horrible scene. A car had struck a tonga coming from the opposite side. The passengers of the tonga had fallen on the road. All of them had got serious injuries. Blood was rushing out from their bodies and withing not time there was a pool of blood everywhere. The driver, of the tonga had died on the spot. People gathered there and took, the injured to the nearby hospital. All were crying with severe pains.
You can imagine how horrible would be the sight!. The eyes of all the people were full of tears. With a heavy heart i came home. I was shivering. My mother consoled me and asked me to sleep but it was impossible for me to shut my eyes.
Pay my compliments to your parents.
Your sincerely,
X.Y.Z
Posted by: Wasim Javed
A.B.C
August28,2011.
My dear friend,
I hope you will be fine and in good health and spirits. I am also OK and enjoying good health. Your have asked me to write to you an interesting letter which is not possible.
Yesterday, I saw a horrible road accident which was very shocking. I cannot forget it. The whole dreadful picture is in front of my eyes and still the cries of the injured are echoing in my ears.
Yesterday, I was returning from college. It was noontime and I was walking on the pavement. Suddenly I heard a big noise. I turned back as saw a horrible scene. A car had struck a tonga coming from the opposite side. The passengers of the tonga had fallen on the road. All of them had got serious injuries. Blood was rushing out from their bodies and withing not time there was a pool of blood everywhere. The driver, of the tonga had died on the spot. People gathered there and took, the injured to the nearby hospital. All were crying with severe pains.
You can imagine how horrible would be the sight!. The eyes of all the people were full of tears. With a heavy heart i came home. I was shivering. My mother consoled me and asked me to sleep but it was impossible for me to shut my eyes.
Pay my compliments to your parents.
Your sincerely,
X.Y.Z
Posted by: Wasim Javed
Labels:
Letters
Letter to a friend to lend you his camera
Examination Hall,
A.B.C
August 28,2011.
My dear friend,
I received your letter a few days ago and came to know about your good health. I am also enjoying good health.
I am writing this letter with a purpose. My friend and i have made a picnic program for ten days. We have decide to go murree in the start of summer vacation and enjoy the charming sceneries and pleasant weather there. My camera is out of order. I want to lend your camera for this trip because i want to preserve the memories of this visit in the form of photographs.
Please, lend me your camera and if you can join us, it would be a great pleasure for me. Inform me about your program as soon as possible.
Pay my regards to your parents.
Your sincerely,
X.Y.Z
Posted by: Wasim Javed
A.B.C
August 28,2011.
My dear friend,
I received your letter a few days ago and came to know about your good health. I am also enjoying good health.
I am writing this letter with a purpose. My friend and i have made a picnic program for ten days. We have decide to go murree in the start of summer vacation and enjoy the charming sceneries and pleasant weather there. My camera is out of order. I want to lend your camera for this trip because i want to preserve the memories of this visit in the form of photographs.
Please, lend me your camera and if you can join us, it would be a great pleasure for me. Inform me about your program as soon as possible.
Pay my regards to your parents.
Your sincerely,
X.Y.Z
Posted by: Wasim Javed
Labels:
Letters
Letter to a friend inviting him to spend his summer vacations with you or to join you on a visit to a hilly station
Examination Hall,
A.B.C
August 26, 2011.
My dear Adeel Hassan,
This letter of mine will find you in the best of your health. What is the reason of your silence? I have not found your letter for long.
Now , I am writing this letter with a purpose. I want to invite you to join us on a visit to Nathiagali for a few days in the start of summer vacations. I am going there along with my five friends. It is our personal arrangement so you can join us without any problem.
Please, take your parents permission to go with us for ten days. Your parents know me well. We shall enjoy the beauty of the area and on our way back we shall stay at Murree for one day. The beautiful scenery of Murree is worth seeing. We shall enjoy climbing up mountains, riding horses, chair left and walking tracks.We shall really enjoy the cool breeze and pleasant weather there and save ourselves from the scorching heat of the Punjab.
Please, inform me about your program and arrival here. I shall wait for your reply anxiously. Bring your camera with you also. I am taking my camera, too.
Pay my compliments to your father and mother.
Your sincerely,
X.Y.Z
Posted by: Wasim Javed
A.B.C
August 26, 2011.
My dear Adeel Hassan,
This letter of mine will find you in the best of your health. What is the reason of your silence? I have not found your letter for long.
Now , I am writing this letter with a purpose. I want to invite you to join us on a visit to Nathiagali for a few days in the start of summer vacations. I am going there along with my five friends. It is our personal arrangement so you can join us without any problem.
Please, take your parents permission to go with us for ten days. Your parents know me well. We shall enjoy the beauty of the area and on our way back we shall stay at Murree for one day. The beautiful scenery of Murree is worth seeing. We shall enjoy climbing up mountains, riding horses, chair left and walking tracks.We shall really enjoy the cool breeze and pleasant weather there and save ourselves from the scorching heat of the Punjab.
Please, inform me about your program and arrival here. I shall wait for your reply anxiously. Bring your camera with you also. I am taking my camera, too.
Pay my compliments to your father and mother.
Your sincerely,
X.Y.Z
Posted by: Wasim Javed
Labels:
Letters
Letter to a friend telling him what profession you want to adopt in your future life
Examination Hall,
A.B.C
August 26, 2011.
My dear friend,
I received your letter a few days ago and came to know about your good health.I am happy to know that you have got admission in the medical college to becomes a doctor in future. In your letter your have asked me to let you know what profession I wanted to adopt in future.
Dear friend, you know very well that I have no interest to becomes a doctor or an engineer. I am studying arts subjects because i want to become a teacher in the subject of English. A teacher is a doctor maker and an engineer maker. I want to teach the students and make them able. I am reading my subjects with great efforts for the realization of my dream. I study late at night. For this reason i have taken English literature because it will help me in getting admission in MA. English. I think, as a teacher i shall serve my nation properly. Our country needs devoted teacher for proper progress.
Pay my regards to your parents. With love to all.
Your sincerely,
X.Y.Z
Posted by: Wasim Javed
A.B.C
August 26, 2011.
My dear friend,
I received your letter a few days ago and came to know about your good health.I am happy to know that you have got admission in the medical college to becomes a doctor in future. In your letter your have asked me to let you know what profession I wanted to adopt in future.
Dear friend, you know very well that I have no interest to becomes a doctor or an engineer. I am studying arts subjects because i want to become a teacher in the subject of English. A teacher is a doctor maker and an engineer maker. I want to teach the students and make them able. I am reading my subjects with great efforts for the realization of my dream. I study late at night. For this reason i have taken English literature because it will help me in getting admission in MA. English. I think, as a teacher i shall serve my nation properly. Our country needs devoted teacher for proper progress.
Pay my regards to your parents. With love to all.
Your sincerely,
X.Y.Z
Posted by: Wasim Javed
Labels:
Letters
Letter to your friend congratulation his great success in the intermediate examination
Examination Hall,
A.B.C
August 25, 2011.
My dear Qundeel,
I received your letter with a happy news about your intermediate result. It is a great pleasure for me that you passed the examination securing 870 marks. All it is the reward of your hard work that your did for the realization of your dream that is to be doctor in future. Now, you can achieve your objectives very easily by getting admission in a medical college. Please, accept my heartiest congratulation on your brilliant success. I shall be soon with you to share your happiness.
Pay my compliments and congratulation to all the members of your family. My father and mother wish you a happy future also.
Your sincerely,
X.Y.Z
Posted by: Wasim Javed
A.B.C
August 25, 2011.
My dear Qundeel,
I received your letter with a happy news about your intermediate result. It is a great pleasure for me that you passed the examination securing 870 marks. All it is the reward of your hard work that your did for the realization of your dream that is to be doctor in future. Now, you can achieve your objectives very easily by getting admission in a medical college. Please, accept my heartiest congratulation on your brilliant success. I shall be soon with you to share your happiness.
Pay my compliments and congratulation to all the members of your family. My father and mother wish you a happy future also.
Your sincerely,
X.Y.Z
Posted by: Wasim Javed
Labels:
Letters
Letter to friend condoling with him on the death of his mother
Examination Hall,
A.B.C
August 25, 2011.
My dear Zubair,
I received your letter yesterday containing the, dreadful news of your mothers sudden death. It really shocked me. It is really an irreparable loss to you. I am so shocked that i can not find proper words for this great grief. But my friend, it is God's will. Death is a bitter reality for all of us. Man is mortal. We can not do anything against it, because we are helpless in this regard.
Your mother was kind lady. She was an embodiment of purity and greatness. All the people respected her due to her good qualities. May her soul rest in heaven. Dear, it is an unforgettable grief but be brave and try to do your work with effort as it was the wish of your mother. She will be happy in the other world when you will become a doctor.
I shall be soon with you after my home test. Pay my regards to your father.
Your Sincerely,
X.y.Z
Posted by: Wasim Javed
A.B.C
August 25, 2011.
My dear Zubair,
I received your letter yesterday containing the, dreadful news of your mothers sudden death. It really shocked me. It is really an irreparable loss to you. I am so shocked that i can not find proper words for this great grief. But my friend, it is God's will. Death is a bitter reality for all of us. Man is mortal. We can not do anything against it, because we are helpless in this regard.
Your mother was kind lady. She was an embodiment of purity and greatness. All the people respected her due to her good qualities. May her soul rest in heaven. Dear, it is an unforgettable grief but be brave and try to do your work with effort as it was the wish of your mother. She will be happy in the other world when you will become a doctor.
I shall be soon with you after my home test. Pay my regards to your father.
Your Sincerely,
X.y.Z
Posted by: Wasim Javed
Labels:
Letters
Letter to your father to increase your monthly allowance
Examination Hall,
A.B.C
August 25, 2011.
My dear father,
I am OK here and wish a happy and healthy life to you all at home. My home examination has come to an end a few days ago. You will be happy to know that I have got very good marks in all the subjects.
Dear father, for the last two months I have been finding if difficult to meet the expenses with the amount sent to me. The prices of things are increasing day by day. The result is that I have to bear many hardship throughout the month. I request you to send Rs. 300/- more than my usual allowance. I think my demand is quite reasonable. I also know that you are spending a lot on my education and this increase will be a burden on yo. But, father, it is also unavoidable for me. I hope you will not mind this.
Pay me regards to mother love to all at home.
Yours affectionately,
X.Y.Z
Posted by: Wasim Javed
A.B.C
August 25, 2011.
My dear father,
I am OK here and wish a happy and healthy life to you all at home. My home examination has come to an end a few days ago. You will be happy to know that I have got very good marks in all the subjects.
Dear father, for the last two months I have been finding if difficult to meet the expenses with the amount sent to me. The prices of things are increasing day by day. The result is that I have to bear many hardship throughout the month. I request you to send Rs. 300/- more than my usual allowance. I think my demand is quite reasonable. I also know that you are spending a lot on my education and this increase will be a burden on yo. But, father, it is also unavoidable for me. I hope you will not mind this.
Pay me regards to mother love to all at home.
Yours affectionately,
X.Y.Z
Posted by: Wasim Javed
Labels:
Letters
Write a letter of advice from a father to his son who studies in a college hostel
Examination Hall,
A.B.C
August 25, 2011.
My dear Son,
I received your letter yesterday that brought a good news about your better health after your long illness. I, also received your result card from the college office that shows a poor result. I know that all it is due to your illness. I also know that your will not disappoint me in future and try to make up your deficiency with hard work.
Now, you are grown up and you must be fully aware of your duties and responsibilities. I consider it necessary that your should always keep in mind certain things.
Your should remain in the company of intelligent and hardworking boys because a man is known by the company he keeps. Character building, is the basic need of education. I advise you to avoid the company of bad boys.
Your first aim must be to get education with distinction. Read attentively and always listen to the lectures of your teacher with full attention. Prepare your own notes and avoid cramming. Revise your lessons daily and try to understand them. If anything is not clear, take the help of your teachers again. Always show great respect to you teachers.
Love from your mother, brother and sister.
Yours affectionately,
X.Y.Z
Posted by: Wasim Javed
A.B.C
August 25, 2011.
My dear Son,
I received your letter yesterday that brought a good news about your better health after your long illness. I, also received your result card from the college office that shows a poor result. I know that all it is due to your illness. I also know that your will not disappoint me in future and try to make up your deficiency with hard work.
Now, you are grown up and you must be fully aware of your duties and responsibilities. I consider it necessary that your should always keep in mind certain things.
Your should remain in the company of intelligent and hardworking boys because a man is known by the company he keeps. Character building, is the basic need of education. I advise you to avoid the company of bad boys.
Your first aim must be to get education with distinction. Read attentively and always listen to the lectures of your teacher with full attention. Prepare your own notes and avoid cramming. Revise your lessons daily and try to understand them. If anything is not clear, take the help of your teachers again. Always show great respect to you teachers.
Love from your mother, brother and sister.
Yours affectionately,
X.Y.Z
Posted by: Wasim Javed
Labels:
Letters
Letter to your younger brother suggesting some interesting books for his study
Examination Hall,
A.B.C
August 24, 2011.
My dear Afaq,
I hope this letter will find you in the best of your health. In your last letter you expressed about you good taste for literary books which you wanted to read in your free time. Books reading is a useful and informative hobby. Good books are really an unending shower of knowledge and wisdom. They are good friends in your loneliness. I suggest you some books which will be really helpful for your in all respects. They will give your good informative knowledge and a great treasure of vocabulary.
First of all your should take start from simple and easy books. These are "Around the world in eighty days", " Robinson Crusoe" Fifty Great Adventures" Sindbad, the sailor, and and Urdu novel.
They contain very thrilling stories and your will enjoy much. These are easy to understand. I hope these books will add a lot to your knowledge and will become your everlasting friends. With all the best wishes.
Your affectionately,
X.Y.Z
Posted by: Wasim Javed
A.B.C
August 24, 2011.
My dear Afaq,
I hope this letter will find you in the best of your health. In your last letter you expressed about you good taste for literary books which you wanted to read in your free time. Books reading is a useful and informative hobby. Good books are really an unending shower of knowledge and wisdom. They are good friends in your loneliness. I suggest you some books which will be really helpful for your in all respects. They will give your good informative knowledge and a great treasure of vocabulary.
First of all your should take start from simple and easy books. These are "Around the world in eighty days", " Robinson Crusoe" Fifty Great Adventures" Sindbad, the sailor, and and Urdu novel.
They contain very thrilling stories and your will enjoy much. These are easy to understand. I hope these books will add a lot to your knowledge and will become your everlasting friends. With all the best wishes.
Your affectionately,
X.Y.Z
Posted by: Wasim Javed
Labels:
Letters
Letter to your uncle thanking him for his gift
Examination Hall,
A.B.C
August 21, 2011.
My dear Uncle,
I received your letter yesterday and found you in the best of you health. I am happy to know about your good health. I became much happy when i received a packet containing a beautiful watch and three useful story books as my birthday gift. My pleasure knew no bounds. The watch you have sent me is very beautiful and precious. It will make me regular and punctual. The books are very informative and interesting. I like them very much. They are treasure of knowledge and vocabulary for me. These are really suitable presents for a student like me.
But, dear uncle, I missed your presence much on my birthday function. Uncle your gifts will remind me your great affection and love forever.
Pay my regards to aunt and love to sara and all.
Yours affectionately,
X.Y.Z
Posted by: Wasim Javed
A.B.C
August 21, 2011.
My dear Uncle,
I received your letter yesterday and found you in the best of you health. I am happy to know about your good health. I became much happy when i received a packet containing a beautiful watch and three useful story books as my birthday gift. My pleasure knew no bounds. The watch you have sent me is very beautiful and precious. It will make me regular and punctual. The books are very informative and interesting. I like them very much. They are treasure of knowledge and vocabulary for me. These are really suitable presents for a student like me.
But, dear uncle, I missed your presence much on my birthday function. Uncle your gifts will remind me your great affection and love forever.
Pay my regards to aunt and love to sara and all.
Yours affectionately,
X.Y.Z
Posted by: Wasim Javed
Labels:
Letters
Letter to your mother telling her that you have been ill in the hostel and now your health is better
Examination Hall,
A.B.C
August 21, 2011.
My dear mother,
I am sorry that i could not write to your earlier because i have been ill for the last two weeks. I hope you will be happy and healthy at home with all other members of the family. I received your kind letter yesterday. Your have asked e why i did not write to you.
Dear mother, I ad an attack of malaria two weeks ago. I fell seriously ill. The doctor has advised me complete rest and I could not walk for a week. I did not inform you because i did not want to upset you.
Do not worry, now i have recovered completely. I took proper medicine and much rest as it was directed by the doctor. Now, my health is improving fast. I take fruit and milk daily. I am attending my classes regularly. I feel a bit weakness still so I do not play games.
I need your prayers. Give my regards to father and love to younger brothers and sisters.
Yours affectionately,
X.Y.Z
Posted by: Wasim Javed
A.B.C
August 21, 2011.
My dear mother,
I am sorry that i could not write to your earlier because i have been ill for the last two weeks. I hope you will be happy and healthy at home with all other members of the family. I received your kind letter yesterday. Your have asked e why i did not write to you.
Dear mother, I ad an attack of malaria two weeks ago. I fell seriously ill. The doctor has advised me complete rest and I could not walk for a week. I did not inform you because i did not want to upset you.
Do not worry, now i have recovered completely. I took proper medicine and much rest as it was directed by the doctor. Now, my health is improving fast. I take fruit and milk daily. I am attending my classes regularly. I feel a bit weakness still so I do not play games.
I need your prayers. Give my regards to father and love to younger brothers and sisters.
Yours affectionately,
X.Y.Z
Posted by: Wasim Javed
Labels:
Letters
Letter to your father requesting him to give you permission to spend your holidays with your friends.
Examination Hall,
A.B.C
August 20, 2011.
My Dear Father,
I received good news about you from your letter that i got yesterday. Thanks God, that all of your are hale and hearty at home. I am all right here busy with my studies.
I am writing this letter with a purpose that is to take permission for a trip to Kaghan Valley in the coming Holidays. Our summer vacations will start from 1st June. Some of my friends are going to visit this beautiful valley. They have asked me to join their company. I also want to see the natural beauty of this attractive valley. The trip is for ten days. I shall be very thankful if you kindly allow me to go with them. I promise your that I shall not give you any chance of complaint. After the trip I shall be with you to enjoy my remaining holidays. Love to all.
Yours affectionately,
X.Y.Z
Posted by: Wasim Javed
A.B.C
August 20, 2011.
My Dear Father,
I received good news about you from your letter that i got yesterday. Thanks God, that all of your are hale and hearty at home. I am all right here busy with my studies.
I am writing this letter with a purpose that is to take permission for a trip to Kaghan Valley in the coming Holidays. Our summer vacations will start from 1st June. Some of my friends are going to visit this beautiful valley. They have asked me to join their company. I also want to see the natural beauty of this attractive valley. The trip is for ten days. I shall be very thankful if you kindly allow me to go with them. I promise your that I shall not give you any chance of complaint. After the trip I shall be with you to enjoy my remaining holidays. Love to all.
Yours affectionately,
X.Y.Z
Posted by: Wasim Javed
Labels:
Letters
Letter to your father telling him your first impression of the College
Examination Hall,
A.B.C
August 20, 2011.
My dear Father,
I am sorry that i could not write to your earlier because i was much busy after my arrival here in the college hostel. Now, i am writing your this letter to tell you about this wonderful world in which i am now living. It is quite a strange and different experience for me. College life is totally different and full of excitement as compared to school life. The building is splendid and large one. The classrooms are airy, neat and clean. The professors are regulars and punctual with a good command over their subjects. We are taking our lectures with great keenness and makes notes. Our college has a large playground where we play in our free time for the sake of exercise that keeps a man healthy.
Hostel life has its own problems and charms. It is my first time when i am away form home that's why i and facing some problems. But, father do not worry, I am trying my best to adjust myself according to the rules and regulation of hostel life. We are given a proper timetable for the whole day for all the activities. I well, Insha-Allah-ta'ala, adjust myself in this new world. I need your prayers. Please, give my regards to mother, brother and sister.
Yours affectionately,
X.Y.Z
Posted by: Wasim Javed
A.B.C
August 20, 2011.
My dear Father,
I am sorry that i could not write to your earlier because i was much busy after my arrival here in the college hostel. Now, i am writing your this letter to tell you about this wonderful world in which i am now living. It is quite a strange and different experience for me. College life is totally different and full of excitement as compared to school life. The building is splendid and large one. The classrooms are airy, neat and clean. The professors are regulars and punctual with a good command over their subjects. We are taking our lectures with great keenness and makes notes. Our college has a large playground where we play in our free time for the sake of exercise that keeps a man healthy.
Hostel life has its own problems and charms. It is my first time when i am away form home that's why i and facing some problems. But, father do not worry, I am trying my best to adjust myself according to the rules and regulation of hostel life. We are given a proper timetable for the whole day for all the activities. I well, Insha-Allah-ta'ala, adjust myself in this new world. I need your prayers. Please, give my regards to mother, brother and sister.
Yours affectionately,
X.Y.Z
Posted by: Wasim Javed
Labels:
Letters
Letter to your father explaining him the cause of your failure in the examination
Examination Hall,
A.B.C
August 20, 2011.
My dear father,
I am OK here and i hope that this letter will find you all in the best for your health. I am sending your my result card of December test in which i have been shown failed in two subjects. English and economics. I am very sorry but, my dear father, it was my hard luck, so i am not much to blame. I had made full preparation for the test but as your know i had a road accident on the day when i was going to college and had severe injuries. For two days i had to remain in hospital and i could not appear in these subjects.
But, now i am all right, and i am working very hard to get good marks in the annual examination which will be held in April. I am studying according to timetable. I assure you that i shall win distinction in the final examination. I hope you will excuse me this time. Pay my compliments to mother and love to all other members of the family. I request mother to pray for my success. With love to all.
Yours affectionately,
X.Y.Z
Posted by: Wasim Javed
A.B.C
August 20, 2011.
My dear father,
I am OK here and i hope that this letter will find you all in the best for your health. I am sending your my result card of December test in which i have been shown failed in two subjects. English and economics. I am very sorry but, my dear father, it was my hard luck, so i am not much to blame. I had made full preparation for the test but as your know i had a road accident on the day when i was going to college and had severe injuries. For two days i had to remain in hospital and i could not appear in these subjects.
But, now i am all right, and i am working very hard to get good marks in the annual examination which will be held in April. I am studying according to timetable. I assure you that i shall win distinction in the final examination. I hope you will excuse me this time. Pay my compliments to mother and love to all other members of the family. I request mother to pray for my success. With love to all.
Yours affectionately,
X.Y.Z
Posted by: Wasim Javed
Labels:
Letters
Letter your father tell him about your progress in studies
Examination Hall,
A.B.C
August 20, 2011.
My dear Father,
I received your kind letter yesterday in which your have asked about my studies in college. I am happy to tell you that i passed all my subjects in college test. I got very good marks in all the subjects except English in which i got only pass marks and that affected my result very badly. Now i feel my mistake.
Father, do not worry because now i have started to work hard with a proper timetable. I give two hours daily to English and improving my vocabulary and English grammar which are very necessary to learn. I am taking help from my teachers and friends in this respect. My teachers have assures me that i shall win some distinction in annual examination. I need your and mother's prayer for my success. With love to all members of the family.
Yours affectionately,
X.Y.Z
Posted by: Wasim Javed
A.B.C
August 20, 2011.
My dear Father,
I received your kind letter yesterday in which your have asked about my studies in college. I am happy to tell you that i passed all my subjects in college test. I got very good marks in all the subjects except English in which i got only pass marks and that affected my result very badly. Now i feel my mistake.
Father, do not worry because now i have started to work hard with a proper timetable. I give two hours daily to English and improving my vocabulary and English grammar which are very necessary to learn. I am taking help from my teachers and friends in this respect. My teachers have assures me that i shall win some distinction in annual examination. I need your and mother's prayer for my success. With love to all members of the family.
Yours affectionately,
X.Y.Z
Posted by: Wasim Javed
Labels:
Letters
My Last Day At School
a) My Old memories: I well remember that day when i stepped in the school on the first day as child of five years. I had my fears then. Now i had felt the importance of school in the life of a human being. I had also become aware of myself.
b) Completion of School duration: By the grace of God I had completed my school term and had prepared myself for the S.S.C examination. As the term was comping to an end my sense of leaving the school was getting deeper and deeper. This sense disturbed me very much. At the same time i was happy that i would enter the practical life after a few days.
c) A tea party is given: Our juniors, our brethren the students of 9th class arranged a tea party to say us farewell and relieve us from the school for ever. In fact they were to take our place. It was a sumptuous and warm good bye. In the end we were given the Roll Nos. We were impatient and restless and often used to say." Free us, free us". But now we were very sad and gloomy to leave the mother institution where we had spent the sweetest part of our life our child hood and boy.hood. Long live the best school of all.
Posted by: Wasim Javed
b) Completion of School duration: By the grace of God I had completed my school term and had prepared myself for the S.S.C examination. As the term was comping to an end my sense of leaving the school was getting deeper and deeper. This sense disturbed me very much. At the same time i was happy that i would enter the practical life after a few days.
c) A tea party is given: Our juniors, our brethren the students of 9th class arranged a tea party to say us farewell and relieve us from the school for ever. In fact they were to take our place. It was a sumptuous and warm good bye. In the end we were given the Roll Nos. We were impatient and restless and often used to say." Free us, free us". But now we were very sad and gloomy to leave the mother institution where we had spent the sweetest part of our life our child hood and boy.hood. Long live the best school of all.
Posted by: Wasim Javed
Labels:
Essays
My First Day In the School
a) I am prepared for the school: My parents and elder brothers washed my brain on year before my admission. They showed me high dreams and built great castles if i got education. They tried to keep me happy. Sometimes they gave me money and sweets as a bribe. However i was entrapped and agreed to go to school. They gave me new clothes.
b)I am taken to school: My father bought a basket of sweets and led me to the school. My uncle also accompanied us first we met an aged man wearing spectates with a stick in his hand. Later i knew that he was the Head Master i was fearing from his appearance. He admitted my and my name. The sweets were distributed among in present in the school.
c) I am left the teachers: My father and uncle went away leaving me to the mercy of the teachers. All the students were looking with wonder at me and so was i. I was thinking myself in a jail. Some boys tried to get very near me. But i was not ready to do so. I hesitated to open my mouth to speak even. Some of them laughed at me. and cut jokes. Every thing looked strange and Marvelous to me. It was difficult to me to pass six hours there. When the last bell went, i was over the joyed to go ans see my home again.
Posted by: Wasim Javed
b)I am taken to school: My father bought a basket of sweets and led me to the school. My uncle also accompanied us first we met an aged man wearing spectates with a stick in his hand. Later i knew that he was the Head Master i was fearing from his appearance. He admitted my and my name. The sweets were distributed among in present in the school.
c) I am left the teachers: My father and uncle went away leaving me to the mercy of the teachers. All the students were looking with wonder at me and so was i. I was thinking myself in a jail. Some boys tried to get very near me. But i was not ready to do so. I hesitated to open my mouth to speak even. Some of them laughed at me. and cut jokes. Every thing looked strange and Marvelous to me. It was difficult to me to pass six hours there. When the last bell went, i was over the joyed to go ans see my home again.
Posted by: Wasim Javed
Labels:
Essays
A House On fire
a) At midnight: I was enjoying a sound sleep when a t about midnight. I heard loud noise of fire fire. I was started to hear the noise and sat on mu bed i tried to listen and find the direction the noise was coming from. But i could not so, i came down in the street to know.
b) I reach the Spot: I saw some people running i also began to run with them. At last we came to the house which had caught fire. I was dumb stricken to see that it was my friend Salim's house.
c)A Child is left Inside: Salim's father was lying half dead while his mother was crying " I have left my child inside. He will be roasted alive. For God's sake save my baby". No one was ready to risk one's life and go into the flames. A brave scout offered himself and went inside. Every body thought that he would be burnt to ashes. Then he appeared from a window with the child in his arms. He jumped down quite safe and sound. Every one expected his brave effort.
d) Efforts to control the Fire: In the mean time all were putting down the fire. Some were throwing dust on it. Some were throwing water with palls or what over they could get some were dragging the luggage out. The fire brigade also reached. It began to put heavy showers of water on the fire. After three hours struggle the fire came under control. But all the house was completely burns with every thing in this part.
e) Loss: It is all good luck that there was no loss of life but a loss of two lac rupees was estimated.
Posted by: Wasim Javed
b) I reach the Spot: I saw some people running i also began to run with them. At last we came to the house which had caught fire. I was dumb stricken to see that it was my friend Salim's house.
c)A Child is left Inside: Salim's father was lying half dead while his mother was crying " I have left my child inside. He will be roasted alive. For God's sake save my baby". No one was ready to risk one's life and go into the flames. A brave scout offered himself and went inside. Every body thought that he would be burnt to ashes. Then he appeared from a window with the child in his arms. He jumped down quite safe and sound. Every one expected his brave effort.
d) Efforts to control the Fire: In the mean time all were putting down the fire. Some were throwing dust on it. Some were throwing water with palls or what over they could get some were dragging the luggage out. The fire brigade also reached. It began to put heavy showers of water on the fire. After three hours struggle the fire came under control. But all the house was completely burns with every thing in this part.
e) Loss: It is all good luck that there was no loss of life but a loss of two lac rupees was estimated.
Posted by: Wasim Javed
Labels:
Essays
A Bus Accident
a) I got to see a fair: I was going to the city to see the fair with is held every year. I ha covered about two kilometers when i saw and accident. It look place before my eyes.
b) The accident takes place: A truck was coming from my opposite direction when a speedy lorry approached from behind and tried to overtake the truck. Bur the driver could not control it and i hit the truck which again struck against big tree. Both the vehicles were overturned.
c) The Pathetic scene and the result of the Accident: It was a very touching scene. Both the drivers and four passengers on the but were killed there and then. Six were seriously injured. Many woman and children got injuries on their heads. While some broke their legs or arms. They were raising hues and cries. It seemed to be a dooms day.
d) I inform the police: I at once went to the police station and informed them of the accident. A police party came in a lorry. They took the dead and wounded to the hospital. In the mean time their relatives had also come to the hospital. Dead bodies were handed over the their relatives and the wounded admitted in the hospital. So i came back home with a heavy heart and could not go the fair.
Posted by: Wasim Javed
b) The accident takes place: A truck was coming from my opposite direction when a speedy lorry approached from behind and tried to overtake the truck. Bur the driver could not control it and i hit the truck which again struck against big tree. Both the vehicles were overturned.
c) The Pathetic scene and the result of the Accident: It was a very touching scene. Both the drivers and four passengers on the but were killed there and then. Six were seriously injured. Many woman and children got injuries on their heads. While some broke their legs or arms. They were raising hues and cries. It seemed to be a dooms day.
d) I inform the police: I at once went to the police station and informed them of the accident. A police party came in a lorry. They took the dead and wounded to the hospital. In the mean time their relatives had also come to the hospital. Dead bodies were handed over the their relatives and the wounded admitted in the hospital. So i came back home with a heavy heart and could not go the fair.
Posted by: Wasim Javed
Labels:
Essays
A Hockey Match
a) Announcement for the Match: About a week ago I was sitting in a shop. When I heard an announcement about a Hockey match. It was to be played between two prominent teams of the country, namely Railway Lahore and Habib Bank Karachi. This announcement was made in the whole city. People and all interested were eagerly waiting for the match. They were buying tickets in advance though the rates were high enough but they did not care for it.
b) On the day of the Match: When the day came, the people got themselves prepared well in time. They took their meal and began to reach the stadium to occupy their seats. I also went and took my seat in the second row. From here I could clearly see the match, and enjoy it. By now the whole stadium was packed to the full to my mind there would be ten thousand spectators who had come to enjoy the match.
c) The Match Starts: The referee blew his whistle and both the team entered the ground screaming and jumping. The players were introduced to the chief guest and them photographed. The match started. Both the teams were showing their best performance. All the players were trying to score a goal. The ball was never too beyond the first lines of attack. No one could say who would win. The game was balanced all the time. Till half-time there was no score from either side. But the players had won appreciation for the excellent play.
d) After the Half-Time: The match started again with a new zeal and spirit. New techniques were put in practice in the last two minutes the railway team got a penalty corner which they struck successfully. The goal was seen by all.
e) In the end: As a result the Lahore Railway won by one goal. They rejoiced and got the challenge cup.
Posted by: Wasim Javed
b) On the day of the Match: When the day came, the people got themselves prepared well in time. They took their meal and began to reach the stadium to occupy their seats. I also went and took my seat in the second row. From here I could clearly see the match, and enjoy it. By now the whole stadium was packed to the full to my mind there would be ten thousand spectators who had come to enjoy the match.
c) The Match Starts: The referee blew his whistle and both the team entered the ground screaming and jumping. The players were introduced to the chief guest and them photographed. The match started. Both the teams were showing their best performance. All the players were trying to score a goal. The ball was never too beyond the first lines of attack. No one could say who would win. The game was balanced all the time. Till half-time there was no score from either side. But the players had won appreciation for the excellent play.
d) After the Half-Time: The match started again with a new zeal and spirit. New techniques were put in practice in the last two minutes the railway team got a penalty corner which they struck successfully. The goal was seen by all.
e) In the end: As a result the Lahore Railway won by one goal. They rejoiced and got the challenge cup.
Posted by: Wasim Javed
Labels:
Essays
Railway Journey
a) Cause of Journey: My cousin, Aslam lives in Hyderabad. He had invited me many times to visit them during the spring holidays. This time i decided to fulfill his wish.
I get up early on the day of my departure. Having said the prayer and taking my breakfast. I took a taxi and went to the railway station.
b) At the Platform: I bought a second class ticket and went to the platform with other passengers. There were men, woman, children, young and old. They were all eagerly waiting for the train to come. There was a great hustle and bustle. Every body seemed very busy. The children and grown ups were busying eatables from the vendors. There were police men and the porters to help the people. I had engaged a porter to get on the train.
c) The Train Comes: After some time, the whistle of the train was heard long before it reached the platform. The passengers began to prepare themselves it comes with a rushing sound. There was a great rush. I got a seat near a window so, i could easily see outside. The guard blew the whistle waved a flag and the train started to movie.
d) On the way: It gained a horrible speed. Every thing outside looked moving in a circle. It passed through green fields over streams and rivers and among thick forest. Every scene was worth seeing. It stopped at big stations only and left the small ones.
e) I reached my destination: At last the Hyderabad station came i got down and went out out the platform. My cousin was waiting there with his car. He soon drove me home.
Posted by: Wasim Javed
I get up early on the day of my departure. Having said the prayer and taking my breakfast. I took a taxi and went to the railway station.
b) At the Platform: I bought a second class ticket and went to the platform with other passengers. There were men, woman, children, young and old. They were all eagerly waiting for the train to come. There was a great hustle and bustle. Every body seemed very busy. The children and grown ups were busying eatables from the vendors. There were police men and the porters to help the people. I had engaged a porter to get on the train.
c) The Train Comes: After some time, the whistle of the train was heard long before it reached the platform. The passengers began to prepare themselves it comes with a rushing sound. There was a great rush. I got a seat near a window so, i could easily see outside. The guard blew the whistle waved a flag and the train started to movie.
d) On the way: It gained a horrible speed. Every thing outside looked moving in a circle. It passed through green fields over streams and rivers and among thick forest. Every scene was worth seeing. It stopped at big stations only and left the small ones.
e) I reached my destination: At last the Hyderabad station came i got down and went out out the platform. My cousin was waiting there with his car. He soon drove me home.
Posted by: Wasim Javed
Labels:
Essays
Biryani
Ingredients Required Quantity & Preparation
Rice 750g/4 cups, washed
& Soaked for 30 minutes
Meat (Beef, Mutton, Chicken) 750 g small cubes
Onion 4 Medium chopped/250g
Ginger Paste 2 tablespoons
Garlic Paste 2 tablespoons
Plain Yogurt 1½ cups/250g
Oil/Ghee 1-1½ cups/175-250g
Biryani Salt, Red chilli powder,
Turmeric, Black paper
Coriander, Cardamom,
Cumin seed, Nigella
Steps of Cooking
1. Heat Oil/ghee and fry the onion until golden. Add meat, garlic and stir for a few minutes.
2. Add ginger and 4-5 cups of water. Cover and cook until the meat is tender.
3. Then add tomatoes, yogurt and Biryani Masala. Fry until Oil/Ghee begins separate from the Masala. Keep aside.
4. Separately in 16 cups of water, add 2 tablespoons salt and the soaked Rice. Boil until it is three quarter tender then drain it thoroughly.
5. Layer the rice and meat mixture in 2 layers. (Sprinkle yellow food colour if desired). Cover and cook on low heat for a few minutes or until the rice is done. Mix well before servings.
Serving Suggestion.
Serve hot with salad and raita.
Posted by: Wasim Javed
Labels:
Pakistani Recipes
My Best Teacher
a) My teachers: There are about thirty teachers in our school. They are all trained and qualified. They make a good teaching team. I like and respect them all. But i like Mr. Ahmad very much. He is best teacher in my eyes.
b) His Family: Hes belongs to a Zamindar Family. Its members are well educated. They hold good position in the areas. They are respected for their social service and Co.operation with all. They decide the disputes of the people if any. I have never seen them quarreling with any body,
C) His Qualifications and method of teaching: Mr. Ahmad possesses the highest qualifications. He is an M.A, M.Ed. He is very capable person. English, math and urdu are his pet subjects. He hag full mastery over them.
He adopts easy methods of teaching. His approach to the lesson is very simple so, the students follow him very well. They remember for even whatever he teaches once.
d) His position in the school: He holds an enviable position in the school and the students, his fellow teachers and the Headmaster respect him very much. He is the right hand of the Headmaster. He is very helpful in running the school. He takes great interest in school affairs. He is the incharge of school sports. He attance the play ground and watches the performance of the players.
e) My Views about him: I think such people are very few who prefer the national respect to their own. They are the pride of the nation.
Posted by: Wasim Javed
b) His Family: Hes belongs to a Zamindar Family. Its members are well educated. They hold good position in the areas. They are respected for their social service and Co.operation with all. They decide the disputes of the people if any. I have never seen them quarreling with any body,
C) His Qualifications and method of teaching: Mr. Ahmad possesses the highest qualifications. He is an M.A, M.Ed. He is very capable person. English, math and urdu are his pet subjects. He hag full mastery over them.
He adopts easy methods of teaching. His approach to the lesson is very simple so, the students follow him very well. They remember for even whatever he teaches once.
d) His position in the school: He holds an enviable position in the school and the students, his fellow teachers and the Headmaster respect him very much. He is the right hand of the Headmaster. He is very helpful in running the school. He takes great interest in school affairs. He is the incharge of school sports. He attance the play ground and watches the performance of the players.
e) My Views about him: I think such people are very few who prefer the national respect to their own. They are the pride of the nation.
Posted by: Wasim Javed
Labels:
Essays
My Best Friend
a) My Friend: I have many friends. They are all sincere and faithful. I like them all and they like my. But i like Rashid the most. I take him as my best friend.
b) His Family: Rashid belongs to a respectable family of the city. His father is a doctor. All his brothers and sisters are educated and hold high posts in military and civil departments. His parents love me very much. They take me one of themselves.
c) Rashid at studies: He is quite a good student. He works very hard. He learns what ever he is taught. He is good at his studies. He gets high marks in all the subjects. The teachers are pleased with him. Last year he passed the middle standard examination with credit. He always stands first in the examination.
d) In games: Rashid is not only a good student, but a prominent player as well. He plays hockey and cricket very well and is a member of first elevens of the school. He is also a good athlete.
e) His Habits: He is a charming man with lovely habits. He is an early riser. He is a Goo-fearing body. He offers his prayers regularly and recites the Holy Quran. He is an obedient son, a faithful friend, a respectful student and what not.
f) My feelings about him: He is an embodiment of all the good qualities. I am proud to have such a boy as my friend. Good and sincere friends are a blessing of God.
Posted by: Wasim Javed
b) His Family: Rashid belongs to a respectable family of the city. His father is a doctor. All his brothers and sisters are educated and hold high posts in military and civil departments. His parents love me very much. They take me one of themselves.
c) Rashid at studies: He is quite a good student. He works very hard. He learns what ever he is taught. He is good at his studies. He gets high marks in all the subjects. The teachers are pleased with him. Last year he passed the middle standard examination with credit. He always stands first in the examination.
d) In games: Rashid is not only a good student, but a prominent player as well. He plays hockey and cricket very well and is a member of first elevens of the school. He is also a good athlete.
e) His Habits: He is a charming man with lovely habits. He is an early riser. He is a Goo-fearing body. He offers his prayers regularly and recites the Holy Quran. He is an obedient son, a faithful friend, a respectful student and what not.
f) My feelings about him: He is an embodiment of all the good qualities. I am proud to have such a boy as my friend. Good and sincere friends are a blessing of God.
Posted by: Wasim Javed
Labels:
Essays
Leukocytes W.B.C's
Leukocytes W.B.C's:
Leukocytes are the white blood corpuscles and are the seemed constituent of formed elements.
Ehemistry: Since the leukocytes are the typical cells, they contain water, nucleoprotein, albumin, globulin and other protein, lipids (especially cholesterol phospho lipids and fat) and other soluble organic substances and inorganic salts. They also possess a variety of enzymes and undoubtedly harmonies and vitamins.
Posted by: Wasim Javed
Leukocytes are the white blood corpuscles and are the seemed constituent of formed elements.
Ehemistry: Since the leukocytes are the typical cells, they contain water, nucleoprotein, albumin, globulin and other protein, lipids (especially cholesterol phospho lipids and fat) and other soluble organic substances and inorganic salts. They also possess a variety of enzymes and undoubtedly harmonies and vitamins.
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Physiology
Function of R.B.C's
1. Transport of Gases:
R.B.C's play an important role in the transport of gases such as O2 and CO2.
i. Transport of O2:
When we inhale O2. Then this O2 reach the lungs where hemoglobin which is the chief component of erythrocyte combines with O2 to form oxy-hemoglobin. Actually the function of erythrocytes is to carry the O2 in the form of oxy-hemoglobin to various time of the body. After reaching the tissues again the O2 is released.
Hb+O2--------> HbO2
HbO2---------> Hb+O2
ii. Transport of Co2:
So after the oxidation of glucose Co2 is released which is not required in the tissues. This Co2 is carried back by R.B.C to the lungs in the form of carb-hemoglobin. From the lungs the Co2 passes out.
2. Energy Production:
R.B.C's also play an important role in the production of energy indirectly because after carries O2 by erythrocytes to the tissues where oxidation of glucose takes places and energy is produced which is required for normal body function.
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 -----------> 6-O2 + 6+O2 = Energy
If R.B.C's left the function of O2 transport no energy will be produced because no oxidation of glucose takes place.
3. Acid-Base Balance:
They also help to maintain acid base balance. It is carried out by the buffering action for example bicarbonates and plasma protein. The buffer action of plasma protein is of great importance which carries about 10% of Co2. In lungs O2Hb is formed from reduced Hb and H+ are released react with Hco2- to give H2Co3. As inside the lungs the cone of Co2. So the equilibrium, the right and Co2 passes out.
H(+) + HCo3(-) <--------> H2Co3 <-----> H2O - Co2
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R.B.C's play an important role in the transport of gases such as O2 and CO2.
i. Transport of O2:
When we inhale O2. Then this O2 reach the lungs where hemoglobin which is the chief component of erythrocyte combines with O2 to form oxy-hemoglobin. Actually the function of erythrocytes is to carry the O2 in the form of oxy-hemoglobin to various time of the body. After reaching the tissues again the O2 is released.
Hb+O2--------> HbO2
HbO2---------> Hb+O2
ii. Transport of Co2:
So after the oxidation of glucose Co2 is released which is not required in the tissues. This Co2 is carried back by R.B.C to the lungs in the form of carb-hemoglobin. From the lungs the Co2 passes out.
2. Energy Production:
R.B.C's also play an important role in the production of energy indirectly because after carries O2 by erythrocytes to the tissues where oxidation of glucose takes places and energy is produced which is required for normal body function.
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 -----------> 6-O2 + 6+O2 = Energy
If R.B.C's left the function of O2 transport no energy will be produced because no oxidation of glucose takes place.
3. Acid-Base Balance:
They also help to maintain acid base balance. It is carried out by the buffering action for example bicarbonates and plasma protein. The buffer action of plasma protein is of great importance which carries about 10% of Co2. In lungs O2Hb is formed from reduced Hb and H+ are released react with Hco2- to give H2Co3. As inside the lungs the cone of Co2. So the equilibrium, the right and Co2 passes out.
H(+) + HCo3(-) <--------> H2Co3 <-----> H2O - Co2
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Physiology
Steges of blood formation in the embryoand foatus
There are three successive stages of blood formation in the embryo and foatus.
1. Mesoblastic haemopoiesis:-
It is the blood formation and occurs in the first two months of embryonic life. In this case most of the cells are formed outside the embryo. This stage diminished in a human embryo of nine weeks.
2. Hepatic- haemopoiesis:-
This constitutes the see and stage and includes. The splenic and thy-mic blood formation this stage occurs from the end to fifth month.
3. Myeloid haemopoiesis :-
This stage beings at the fifth with the establishment of the presental circulation. In this stage first liver is responsible for the formation of R.B.C's and the bone marrow for the W.B.C's later in the bone marrow take the responsibility of fer the formation of R.B.C's
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1. Mesoblastic haemopoiesis:-
It is the blood formation and occurs in the first two months of embryonic life. In this case most of the cells are formed outside the embryo. This stage diminished in a human embryo of nine weeks.
2. Hepatic- haemopoiesis:-
This constitutes the see and stage and includes. The splenic and thy-mic blood formation this stage occurs from the end to fifth month.
3. Myeloid haemopoiesis :-
This stage beings at the fifth with the establishment of the presental circulation. In this stage first liver is responsible for the formation of R.B.C's and the bone marrow for the W.B.C's later in the bone marrow take the responsibility of fer the formation of R.B.C's
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Physiology
The Need for a USB to Ethernet Adapter
The Ethernet adapter is far more reliable and much more efficient when compared to the USB while using the computer for internet surfing. Also since the connection is wireless, it makes more sense to have this adapter installed. The USB to Ethernet adapter is a modern way of integrating effectiveness with speed and provides low cost solution to desktops, laptops and notebook computers.
The main purpose is to allow for free access between machines and so for this purpose the Bridge driver needs to be installed in the CPU. In the latest machines, the driver will be automatically identified and the user will be prompted on whether or not he wishes to install the same. It is ideal to have it in the system as it allows for faster transfer of data and uninterrupted broadband services. This makes the system more reliable and perfect for environments where service needs to be uninterrupted and at a higher speed than usual. Easily available for Windows users, these might prove a bit of a hassle for those with systems running on MAC operating system. Even though the USB to Ethernet adapters are available easily at low cost, the drivers for MAC based systems are rather expensive. An alternative driver called Pegasus is available for them, which is economical and just as effective. When the USB cable is inserted it should throw up a screen that states that a new port has been added.
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The main purpose is to allow for free access between machines and so for this purpose the Bridge driver needs to be installed in the CPU. In the latest machines, the driver will be automatically identified and the user will be prompted on whether or not he wishes to install the same. It is ideal to have it in the system as it allows for faster transfer of data and uninterrupted broadband services. This makes the system more reliable and perfect for environments where service needs to be uninterrupted and at a higher speed than usual. Easily available for Windows users, these might prove a bit of a hassle for those with systems running on MAC operating system. Even though the USB to Ethernet adapters are available easily at low cost, the drivers for MAC based systems are rather expensive. An alternative driver called Pegasus is available for them, which is economical and just as effective. When the USB cable is inserted it should throw up a screen that states that a new port has been added.
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DSL
What is a USB to Ethernet Adapter
While connecting an external device to the computer one makes use of the Universal Serial Bus (USB) ports available either in the front or rear side of the motherboard. Once the cable is put in place, it enables easy use of the local area network, or connection between two or more computers. Most of the external peripherals use a USB port for connection with the main computer. Since it is a plug and play system, it can be used for any kind of device as long as the related cable is put in place. The latest versions of USB supports up to 480 Mbps of data transfer which is phenomenally large when compared to the ones available earlier. In order to work faster and for the broadband connection to be fully utilized, USB to an Ethernet adapter needs to be installed. This requires special drives which first have to be put in place following which the user can enjoy unlimited internet access.
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DSL
EAP or Extensible Authentication Protocol
EAP was lately introduced as the newest PPP authentication protocol with MS CHAP V2 based features. During the authentication phase EAP is not in the picture! That's the biggest difference between EAP and other methods. EAP does not perform any sort of authentication, it in-fact only negotiates the actual EAP type and the user authentication is done by the Domain controller which hold the user database or a RADIUS (Remote Dial-in User Service) which works are an agent to get user credentials verified against a Domain Controller.
Until MS-CHAP V2, this authentication was happening only at the NAS server with the user database but with EAP, it's against a central user database holder or a Domain Controller only.
EAP is a new PPP authentication protocol that allows for an arbitrary authentication method. Once the user is connected over PPP, NAS server immediately collects the user credentials and sends them over to a RADIUS or Domain Controller for verification.
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Until MS-CHAP V2, this authentication was happening only at the NAS server with the user database but with EAP, it's against a central user database holder or a Domain Controller only.
EAP is a new PPP authentication protocol that allows for an arbitrary authentication method. Once the user is connected over PPP, NAS server immediately collects the user credentials and sends them over to a RADIUS or Domain Controller for verification.
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MS-CHAP v2 or Microsoft Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol Version 2
The newer version of MS-CHAP was introduced some after the older one giving it a name MS-CHAP V2. The encryption authentication mechanism was updated with much stronger security specifically when the username and password can now be exchanged along with determination of encryption keys. Initially the NAS server attempts to send the session ID and challenge to the remote client. The remote client uses the hash algorithm to reply back to NAS server's challenge string along with the supported encryption type, the session ID, its own peer challenge and the user password. In next step, the NAS server verifies client's information and responds with the another ID specifying the reason if this connection was a success or failure based upon the information like the negotiated encryption type, Peer challenge response, and decision on the NAS server challenge (the password client has provided).
The remote client verifies this information with the one it sent before and connects to the NAS server. If for some reason the authentication response was not correct, the remote client will terminate the connection. Therefore, it's a behavior where the both client and server authenticate each other mutually. Also, there are two type of encryption keys used, one of sending the data and the other one receiving the data.
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The remote client verifies this information with the one it sent before and connects to the NAS server. If for some reason the authentication response was not correct, the remote client will terminate the connection. Therefore, it's a behavior where the both client and server authenticate each other mutually. Also, there are two type of encryption keys used, one of sending the data and the other one receiving the data.
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MS-CHAP or Microsoft Challenge-Handshake Authentication Protocol
MSCHAP is an encrypted authentication mechanism which works very similar to CHAP. We have seen in CHAP, where a NAS server sends a challenge to the client consisting of a Session ID and a hash challenge string. The remote client then, returns back the challenge with the session ID and MD4 based hashed answer. The introduction of MD4 gave an extra level of security where the clear-text was replaced with the hash passwords. MS-CHAP gave more attributes to the secure transmission of password over the wire by adding more error code aware attributes like, password expired code, next level of encryption between client and server allowing user to change there password while connected to the NAS server or during authentication process. The additional encryption between client and server is supported by using an encryption key to support data encryption by MPPE (Microsoft Point to Point Encryption).
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DSL
CHAP or Challenge-Handshake Authentication Protocol
CHAP is better than PAP as its uses encrypted authentication mechanism which would protect the username and password from being sent if the destination NAS server does not support this authentication method. Basically, the actual password will not be transmitted over the network, instead when the basic PPP connection is established, the NAS server sends a challenge phrase associated with a Session ID to the remote client. Then the remote client uses a specific MD5 (message digest version 4) hash algorithm to answer the challenge string with the username and an answer to the hash challenge with its username, network ID and password. The username will still be sent in plain text though.
CHAP is definitely a better choice than PAP where the password is sent in clear-text. But in CHAP the password is mixed up in hash form as an answer to the challenge string sent by the NAS server. Once the answer to the hash challenge is received the NAS server which already know the password, authenticates the user immediately. CHAP keeping sending challenges for the user to reply and verify its identity several times during the connection making it a more secure connection from any intrusion. The advantage CHAP carries over PAP is the way a user is authenticated over a dial-up or direct PPP connection.
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CHAP is definitely a better choice than PAP where the password is sent in clear-text. But in CHAP the password is mixed up in hash form as an answer to the challenge string sent by the NAS server. Once the answer to the hash challenge is received the NAS server which already know the password, authenticates the user immediately. CHAP keeping sending challenges for the user to reply and verify its identity several times during the connection making it a more secure connection from any intrusion. The advantage CHAP carries over PAP is the way a user is authenticated over a dial-up or direct PPP connection.
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DSL
PPP NCP's
A PPP Network Control Protocol must be defined for each type of network packet which is to be encapsulated and transmitted across the PPP link.
Some of the defined PPP NCP's are:
• Internet Protocol Control Protocol
• OSI Network Layer Control Protocol
• Xerox NS IDP Control Protocol
• DECnet Phase IV Control Protocol
• Appletalk Control Protocol
• Novell IPX Control Protocol
• Bridging NCP
• Stream Protocol Control Protocol
• Banyan Vines Control Protocol
• Multi-Link Control Protocol
• NETBIOS Framing Control Protocol
• Cisco Systems Control Protocol
• Ascom Timeplex
• Fujitsu LBLB Control Protocol
• DCA Remote Lan Network Control Protocol (RLNCP)
• Serial Data Control Protocol (PPP-SDCP)
• SNA over 802.2 Control Protocol
• SNA Control Protocol
• IP6 Header Compression Control Protocol
• Stampede Bridging Control Protocol
• Compression on single link in multilink group control
• Compression Control Protocol
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Some of the defined PPP NCP's are:
• Internet Protocol Control Protocol
• OSI Network Layer Control Protocol
• Xerox NS IDP Control Protocol
• DECnet Phase IV Control Protocol
• Appletalk Control Protocol
• Novell IPX Control Protocol
• Bridging NCP
• Stream Protocol Control Protocol
• Banyan Vines Control Protocol
• Multi-Link Control Protocol
• NETBIOS Framing Control Protocol
• Cisco Systems Control Protocol
• Ascom Timeplex
• Fujitsu LBLB Control Protocol
• DCA Remote Lan Network Control Protocol (RLNCP)
• Serial Data Control Protocol (PPP-SDCP)
• SNA over 802.2 Control Protocol
• SNA Control Protocol
• IP6 Header Compression Control Protocol
• Stampede Bridging Control Protocol
• Compression on single link in multilink group control
• Compression Control Protocol
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PPP LCP
The PPP Link Control Protocol is responsible for establishing, configururing, managing, and terminating the point-to-point link.
LCP accomplishes these tasks through the use of simple control messages:
Link Configuration messages used to establish and configure a link:
• Configure-Request
• Configure-Ack
• Configure-Nak
• Configure-Reject
Link Termination messages used to terminate a link:
• Terminate-Request
• Terminate-Ack
Link Maintenance messages used to manage and debug a link:
• Code-Reject
• Protocol-Reject
• Echo-Request
• Echo-Reply
• Discard-Request
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LCP accomplishes these tasks through the use of simple control messages:
Link Configuration messages used to establish and configure a link:
• Configure-Request
• Configure-Ack
• Configure-Nak
• Configure-Reject
Link Termination messages used to terminate a link:
• Terminate-Request
• Terminate-Ack
Link Maintenance messages used to manage and debug a link:
• Code-Reject
• Protocol-Reject
• Echo-Request
• Echo-Reply
• Discard-Request
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DSL
What is PPP
PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol), is the most widely used method for transporting IP packets over a serial link between the user and the Internet Service Provider (ISP).
Although PPP is primarily used over dialup lines, variants such as PPoE (PPP over Ethernet) and PPoA (PPP over ATM) extend PPP to new data-link layer protocols.
PPP was designed to enable the transmission of different protocols over one point-to-point link by utilizing encapsulation. Encapsulation is the process of storing packets from the foreign protocol inside PPP frames.
In addition to this encapsulation function, PPP also provides:
• A Link Control Protocol (LCP) for establishing, configuring, and testing the data-link connection.
• A suite of Network Control Protocols (NCPs) for establishing and configuring different network-layer protocols.
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Although PPP is primarily used over dialup lines, variants such as PPoE (PPP over Ethernet) and PPoA (PPP over ATM) extend PPP to new data-link layer protocols.
PPP was designed to enable the transmission of different protocols over one point-to-point link by utilizing encapsulation. Encapsulation is the process of storing packets from the foreign protocol inside PPP frames.
In addition to this encapsulation function, PPP also provides:
• A Link Control Protocol (LCP) for establishing, configuring, and testing the data-link connection.
• A suite of Network Control Protocols (NCPs) for establishing and configuring different network-layer protocols.
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How a Router Works
When data packets are transmitted over a network (say the Internet), they move through many routers (because they pass through many networks) in their journey from the source machine to the destination machine. Routers work with IP packets, meaning that it works at the level of the IP protocol.
Each router keeps information about its neighbors (other routers in the same or other networks). This information includes the IP address and the cost, which is in terms of time, delay and other network considerations. This information is kept in a routing table, found in all routers.
When a packet of data arrives at a router, its header information is scrutinized by the router. Based on the destination and source IP addresses of the packet, the router decides which neighbor it will forward it to. It chooses the route with the least cost, and forwards the packet to the first router on that route.
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Each router keeps information about its neighbors (other routers in the same or other networks). This information includes the IP address and the cost, which is in terms of time, delay and other network considerations. This information is kept in a routing table, found in all routers.
When a packet of data arrives at a router, its header information is scrutinized by the router. Based on the destination and source IP addresses of the packet, the router decides which neighbor it will forward it to. It chooses the route with the least cost, and forwards the packet to the first router on that route.
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Routers for Home & Small Business
Not all routers are created equal since their job will differ slightly from network to network. Additionally, you may look at a piece of hardware and not even realize it is a router. What defines a router is not its shape, color, size or manufacturer, but its job function of routing data packets between computers. A cable modem which routes data between your PC and your ISP can be considered a router. In its most basic form, a router could simply be one of two computers running the Windows 98 (or higher) operating system connected together using ICS (Internet Connection Sharing). In this scenario, the computer that is connected to the Internet is acting as the router for the second computer to obtain its Internet connection.
Going a step up from ICS, we have a category of hardware routers that are used to perform the same basic task as ICS, albeit with more features and functions. Often called broadband or Internet connection sharing routers, these routers allow you to share one Internet connection between multiple computers.
Broadband or ICS routers will look a bit different depending on the manufacturer or brand, but wired routers are generally a small box-shaped hardware device with ports on the front or back into which you plug each computer, along with a port to plug in your broadband modem. These connection ports allow the router to do its job of routing the data packets between each of the the computers and the data going to and from the Internet.
Depending on the type of modem and Internet connection you have, you could also choose a router with phone or fax machine ports. A wired Ethernet broadband router will typically have a built-in Ethernet switch to allow for expansion. These routers also support NAT (network address translation), which allows all of your computers to share a single IP address on the Internet. Internet connection sharing routers will also provide users with much needed features such as an SPI firewall or serve as a a DHCP Server.
Wireless broadband routers look much the same as a wired router, with the obvious exception of the antenna on top, and the lack of cable running from the PCs to the router when it is all set up. Creating a wireless network adds a bit more security concerns as opposed to wired networks, but wireless broadband routers do have extra levels of embedded security. Along with the features found in wired routers, wireless routers also provide features relevant to wireless security such as Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) and wireless MAC address filtering. Additionally, most wireless routers can be configured for "invisible mode" so that your wireless network cannot be scanned by outside wireless clients. Wireless routers will often include ports for Ethernet connections as well. For those unfamiliar with WiFi and how it works, it is important to note that choosing a wireless router may mean you need to beef up your Wi-Fi knowledge-base. After a wireless network is established, you may possibly need to spend more time on monitoring and security than one would with a wired LAN.
Wired and wireless routers and the resulting network can claim pros and cons over each other, but they are somewhat equal overall in terms of function and performance. Both wired and wireless routers have high reliability and reasonably good security (without adding additional products). However —and this bears repeating — as we mentioned you may need to invest time in learning more about wireless security. Generally, going wired will be cheaper overall, but setting up the router and cabling in the computers is a bit more difficult than setting up the wireless network. Of course, mobility on a wired system is very limited while wireless offers outstanding mobility features.
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Going a step up from ICS, we have a category of hardware routers that are used to perform the same basic task as ICS, albeit with more features and functions. Often called broadband or Internet connection sharing routers, these routers allow you to share one Internet connection between multiple computers.
Broadband or ICS routers will look a bit different depending on the manufacturer or brand, but wired routers are generally a small box-shaped hardware device with ports on the front or back into which you plug each computer, along with a port to plug in your broadband modem. These connection ports allow the router to do its job of routing the data packets between each of the the computers and the data going to and from the Internet.
Depending on the type of modem and Internet connection you have, you could also choose a router with phone or fax machine ports. A wired Ethernet broadband router will typically have a built-in Ethernet switch to allow for expansion. These routers also support NAT (network address translation), which allows all of your computers to share a single IP address on the Internet. Internet connection sharing routers will also provide users with much needed features such as an SPI firewall or serve as a a DHCP Server.
Wireless broadband routers look much the same as a wired router, with the obvious exception of the antenna on top, and the lack of cable running from the PCs to the router when it is all set up. Creating a wireless network adds a bit more security concerns as opposed to wired networks, but wireless broadband routers do have extra levels of embedded security. Along with the features found in wired routers, wireless routers also provide features relevant to wireless security such as Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) and wireless MAC address filtering. Additionally, most wireless routers can be configured for "invisible mode" so that your wireless network cannot be scanned by outside wireless clients. Wireless routers will often include ports for Ethernet connections as well. For those unfamiliar with WiFi and how it works, it is important to note that choosing a wireless router may mean you need to beef up your Wi-Fi knowledge-base. After a wireless network is established, you may possibly need to spend more time on monitoring and security than one would with a wired LAN.
Wired and wireless routers and the resulting network can claim pros and cons over each other, but they are somewhat equal overall in terms of function and performance. Both wired and wireless routers have high reliability and reasonably good security (without adding additional products). However —and this bears repeating — as we mentioned you may need to invest time in learning more about wireless security. Generally, going wired will be cheaper overall, but setting up the router and cabling in the computers is a bit more difficult than setting up the wireless network. Of course, mobility on a wired system is very limited while wireless offers outstanding mobility features.
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DSL
Why Would I Need a Router
For most home users, they may want to set-up a LAN (local Area Network) or WLAN (wireless LAN) and connect all computers to the Internet without having to pay a full broadband subscription service to their ISP for each computer on the network. In many instances, an ISP will allow you to use a router and connect multiple computers to a single Internet connection and pay a nominal fee for each additional computer sharing the connection. This is when home users will want to look at smaller routers, often called broadband routers that enable two or more computers to share an Internet connection. Within a business or organization, you may need to connect multiple computers to the Internet, but also want to connect multiple private networks — and these are the types of functions a router is designed for.
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DSL
Router
A router is a device that forwards data packets along networks. A router is connected to at least two networks, commonly two LANs or WANs or a LAN and its ISP's network. Routers are located at gateways, the places where two or more networks connect, and are the critical device that keeps data flowing between networks and keeps the networks connected to the Internet. When data is sent between locations on one network or from one network to a second network the data is always seen and directed to the correct location by the router. They accomplish his by using headers and forwarding tables to determine the best path for forwarding the data packets, and they use protocols such as ICMP to communicate with each other and configure the best route between any two hosts.
The Internet itself is a global network connecting millions of computers and smaller networks — so you can see how crucial the role of a router is to our way of communicating and computing.
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The Internet itself is a global network connecting millions of computers and smaller networks — so you can see how crucial the role of a router is to our way of communicating and computing.
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What is ISDN
ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) is a system of digital phone connections that has been designed for sending voice, video, and data simultaneously over digital or ordinary phone lines, with a much faster speed and higher quality than an analog system can provide. ISDN is basically a set of protocol for making and breaking circuit switched connections as well as for advanced call features for the customers. ISDN is the international communication standard for data transmission along telephone lines and has transmission speeds up to 64 Kbps per channel.
ISDN uses two channels for communication which are the Bearer Channel or the B channel and the Delta Channel of the D Channel. The B channel is used for the data transmission and the D channel is used for signaling and control, though data can be transmitted through the D cannels as well. ISND has two access options, the Basic Rate Interface, also known as the BRI or the Basic Rate Access or BRA and Primary Rate Interface or Primary Rate Access. Basic Rate Interface is made up of two B channels with a bandwidth of 64 Kbit/s and a D channel with a bandwidth with 16 Kbit/s. The Basic Rate Interface is also known as 2B+D.
Primary Rate Interface has a greater number of B channels, which varies from nation to nation across the globe, and a D channel with a bandwidth of 64 Kbit/s. For example, in North America and Japan a PRI is represented as 23B+D (a total bit rate of 1.544 Mbit/s) while it is 30B+D in Australia and Europe (equivalent to a bit rate of 2.048 Mbit/s).
A technique called bipolar with eight-zero substitution technique is used to transfer calls through the data channels - the B channels - with the signaling channels (D channels) being exclusively used for call set up and management. Once the call had been set up, a 64 Kbit/s synchronous bidirectional B channel transfer the data between the ends, which lasts until the call ends. Theoretically, there can be as many calls as there are data channels, the choice of same or different end point not withstanding. Also, it is possible to multiplex a number of bearer channels (B channels) to produce a single higher bandwidth channel, using a process called B channel bonding.
ISDN has become a relatively old technology, but it isn't obsolete. ISDN is a technology that is often used behind the scenes as a component of more recent technology. Hopefully ISDN will continue to evolve so that it can continue to make an impact in the technological world.
Posted by: Wasim Javed
ISDN uses two channels for communication which are the Bearer Channel or the B channel and the Delta Channel of the D Channel. The B channel is used for the data transmission and the D channel is used for signaling and control, though data can be transmitted through the D cannels as well. ISND has two access options, the Basic Rate Interface, also known as the BRI or the Basic Rate Access or BRA and Primary Rate Interface or Primary Rate Access. Basic Rate Interface is made up of two B channels with a bandwidth of 64 Kbit/s and a D channel with a bandwidth with 16 Kbit/s. The Basic Rate Interface is also known as 2B+D.
Primary Rate Interface has a greater number of B channels, which varies from nation to nation across the globe, and a D channel with a bandwidth of 64 Kbit/s. For example, in North America and Japan a PRI is represented as 23B+D (a total bit rate of 1.544 Mbit/s) while it is 30B+D in Australia and Europe (equivalent to a bit rate of 2.048 Mbit/s).
A technique called bipolar with eight-zero substitution technique is used to transfer calls through the data channels - the B channels - with the signaling channels (D channels) being exclusively used for call set up and management. Once the call had been set up, a 64 Kbit/s synchronous bidirectional B channel transfer the data between the ends, which lasts until the call ends. Theoretically, there can be as many calls as there are data channels, the choice of same or different end point not withstanding. Also, it is possible to multiplex a number of bearer channels (B channels) to produce a single higher bandwidth channel, using a process called B channel bonding.
ISDN has become a relatively old technology, but it isn't obsolete. ISDN is a technology that is often used behind the scenes as a component of more recent technology. Hopefully ISDN will continue to evolve so that it can continue to make an impact in the technological world.
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DSL
Broadband over Power Line Issues
Although the technology for Broadband over Power Lines is available, and companies have started offering the service in the US, it is facing opposition from ham operators and the Federal Emergency Management Administration (FEMA) who are concerned that Broadband over Power Lines technology will reduce the number of radio frequencies available for ham and short-wave radio operators and that RF transmission over unshielded medium-voltage lines will cause interference with already-assigned frequencies.
There are also no set transmission standards for Broadband over Power Lines technology. This is further hampering efforts to have the technology adapted by more Internet Service Providers.
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There are also no set transmission standards for Broadband over Power Lines technology. This is further hampering efforts to have the technology adapted by more Internet Service Providers.
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The Broadband over Power Lines Transmission Architecture
The key to broadband over power lines (Broadband over Power Lines) technology lies in a long established scientific fact: radio frequency (RF) energy can be bundled on the same line that carries electrical current. Since RF and electricity vibrate on different frequencies, there's not going to be any interference between the two. As such, data packets transmitted over RF frequencies are not overwhelmed or lost because of electrical current.
The Broadband over Power Lines system does not utilize the complete power grid. Electricity from power generating plants proceeds to transmission substations which distribute the current using high-voltage transmission lines carrying between 155,000 to 765,000 volts. These high-voltage lines are not suitable for data or RF transmission.
The Broadband over Power Lines solution is to bypass the substations and high-voltage wires and focus on the medium-voltage transmission lines (carrying around 7,200 volts) and the transformers that convert the electrical current to 240 volts - the electrical current used in households.
In other words, standard fiber optic lines specifically designed for Internet transmissions are going to be used to carry data. These fiber optic lines will be connected to medium-voltage lines. Repeaters are installed at these junction points to 'repeat' the data and boost the strength of the transmission. Couplers or specialized devices are also going to be installed at the transformers to provide a data link around these. After that, the digital data will be carried down the 240-volt line that connects to the residential or office buildings' electrical outlets which become the final distribution point for the data.
At this point, the residents and the office administrators have two options for Internet connectivity. They can get wireless transmitters that will wirelessly receive the signal and send the data on to computer stations or they can get Broadband over Power Lines modems for data filtering -the Broadband over Power Lines modem will screen out power line noise and let only data through - then send the data onwards to the stations. The wireless transmitter or the Broadband over Power Lines modem can transmit the signal to end-users or computer stations wirelessly (which necessitate WLAN-capable devices) or through wires (which require computers connected to the data transmitter or Broadband over Power Lines modem through Ethernet cables).
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The Broadband over Power Lines system does not utilize the complete power grid. Electricity from power generating plants proceeds to transmission substations which distribute the current using high-voltage transmission lines carrying between 155,000 to 765,000 volts. These high-voltage lines are not suitable for data or RF transmission.
The Broadband over Power Lines solution is to bypass the substations and high-voltage wires and focus on the medium-voltage transmission lines (carrying around 7,200 volts) and the transformers that convert the electrical current to 240 volts - the electrical current used in households.
In other words, standard fiber optic lines specifically designed for Internet transmissions are going to be used to carry data. These fiber optic lines will be connected to medium-voltage lines. Repeaters are installed at these junction points to 'repeat' the data and boost the strength of the transmission. Couplers or specialized devices are also going to be installed at the transformers to provide a data link around these. After that, the digital data will be carried down the 240-volt line that connects to the residential or office buildings' electrical outlets which become the final distribution point for the data.
At this point, the residents and the office administrators have two options for Internet connectivity. They can get wireless transmitters that will wirelessly receive the signal and send the data on to computer stations or they can get Broadband over Power Lines modems for data filtering -the Broadband over Power Lines modem will screen out power line noise and let only data through - then send the data onwards to the stations. The wireless transmitter or the Broadband over Power Lines modem can transmit the signal to end-users or computer stations wirelessly (which necessitate WLAN-capable devices) or through wires (which require computers connected to the data transmitter or Broadband over Power Lines modem through Ethernet cables).
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What is Broadband over Power Lines
Broadband over Power Lines, or BPL, refers to the transmission (sending and receiving) of digital data through existing power cables and electricity distribution infrastructures. This can be viewed as a mere variation on using television cables; instead of using television cables, though, power transmission lines are going to be used.
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Conclusion
The oversimplified version of this information is newer cable technology permits you to both receive and transmit over cable at the same time. This allows you to watch your favorite television shows while downloading your email and paying bills online. This is done using the same cable, but using separate receiver and modem. It's a good example of a technology previously thought to be useful in only one application being fully exploited to advance new technologies and expand previously unknown possibilities. Success has been the byproduct of this brave new move.
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Transfer Rates
Most DOCSIS cable modem service providers implement caps on upload and download rates to suit their different configurations. For example, Comcast, the largest cable TV network in the U.S. caps the download bandwidth at 6 Mbps and upstream bandwidth at 384 Kbps. The caps are set by sending a configuration file to the modem via TFTP, at the instance when the modem establishes a connection to the provider server for the first time. The caps vary with different players. Most companies offer higher download rates, but you can expect to pay more for this service.
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Global DOCSIS Standards
Because frequency allocation plans differ between European and US counterparts, a separate European DOCSIS has been developed exclusively for European countries under the name 'EuroDOCSIS'. The main difference between the two standards is in the TV channel bandwidths. For example, European TV channels confirm to PAL TV standards while American ones confirm to NTSC standards. In comparison, the wider bandwidth of EuroDOCSIS is advantageous to Internet users because it has more bandwidth that can be allocated towards downstream data path.
Japan has developed its own version of DOCSIS that is further distinguished from either of the existing services in either Europe or the US.
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Japan has developed its own version of DOCSIS that is further distinguished from either of the existing services in either Europe or the US.
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DOCSIS Types
DOCSIS 1.0 debuted in March 1997 and is what most consumers typically link with high speed cable Internet access . This version facilitates a downstream traffic transfer rates of 27-36 Mbps over a radio frequency (RF) path in the 50 MHz to 750+ MHz range, and upstream traffic transfer rates between 320 Kbps-10 Mbps (average 5 Mbps) over a RF path between 5 and 42 MHz. In layman's terms when more people who use DOCSIS 1.0 are using the Internet the slower the overall speed will be for customers.
DOCSIS 1.1 can coexist with DOCSIS 1.0, but features an increased upstream data transmission and improved security. This version facilitates multiple services such as voice and streaming. The end result is faster transmission and reception with a greater inventory of features.
DOCSIS 2.0 has an added capacity for symmetric services by operating at 64 QAM, backed by a new 6.4 MHz wide channel. Enhanced modulation and improved error correction ensures that this standard offers an increased bandwidth for IP traffic. The upstream traffic DOCSIS 2.0 is above 30 Mbps which is 3 times better than DOCSIS 1.1 and 6 times faster than DOCSIS 1.0. DOCSIS 2.0 is interoperable and backward compatible with DOCSIS 1.x. Long story short - this version works with both of the others but remains much faster and exhibits fewer errors.
The latest development in cable Internet connection is Embedded DOCSIS (eDOCSIS). eDOCSIS is designed to provide subordinate services at the core chip level to the host device. Its purpose includes end device management (including traffic management), configuration and security issues to significantly reduce cost in the service operation and to enhance speed and quality of end customer services. This evolution of service provides greater overall speed, reduced costs, and is less problematic for your service provider.
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DOCSIS 1.1 can coexist with DOCSIS 1.0, but features an increased upstream data transmission and improved security. This version facilitates multiple services such as voice and streaming. The end result is faster transmission and reception with a greater inventory of features.
DOCSIS 2.0 has an added capacity for symmetric services by operating at 64 QAM, backed by a new 6.4 MHz wide channel. Enhanced modulation and improved error correction ensures that this standard offers an increased bandwidth for IP traffic. The upstream traffic DOCSIS 2.0 is above 30 Mbps which is 3 times better than DOCSIS 1.1 and 6 times faster than DOCSIS 1.0. DOCSIS 2.0 is interoperable and backward compatible with DOCSIS 1.x. Long story short - this version works with both of the others but remains much faster and exhibits fewer errors.
The latest development in cable Internet connection is Embedded DOCSIS (eDOCSIS). eDOCSIS is designed to provide subordinate services at the core chip level to the host device. Its purpose includes end device management (including traffic management), configuration and security issues to significantly reduce cost in the service operation and to enhance speed and quality of end customer services. This evolution of service provides greater overall speed, reduced costs, and is less problematic for your service provider.
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DOCSIS Architecture
The DOCSIS architecture consists of two primary components. 1) A cable modem located with the customer and, 2) the cable modem termination system operated by cable service providers. The second function is to perform as a Hi Speed way station for multiple cable modems and then communicate with the system network. DOCSIS defines protocol for bi-directional signal exchange between these two components through the use of cable.
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What is DOCSIS
Data Over Cable Service Interface Specification (DOCSIS) defines the interface standards for cable modems and supporting equipment involved in high speed data transfer and distribution over cable television system networks. It permits additional high-speed data transfer over an existing cable TV system and is widely used by television operators to offer Internet access through an already existing hybrid fiber coaxial infrastructure. Other devices that recognize and support DOCSIS include HDTV's and Web-enabled set-top boxes for televisions. In other words, the same cable that brings you CSI can also allow you to send email and receive Internet news.
CableLabs developed DOCSIS and this technology has been approved as a standard for cable modems by ITU.
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CableLabs developed DOCSIS and this technology has been approved as a standard for cable modems by ITU.
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Which is Faster: DSL or Satellite Internet
For those looking for an answer to this question, you will be happy to know that there is a clear-cut answer. DSL is in almost every case the faster broadband Internet technology available.
DSL broadband Internet technology can usually deliver speeds to a home from between 2Mbps to 8Mbps. On the other hand, satellite Internet usually delivers anywhere from 512 Kbps to 2Mbps. DSL broadband internet is also much cheaper than satellite internet. For instance, you should expect to pay about 3 times as much for comparable bandwidth and the modem and other equipment can cost you hundreds, if not thousands of dollars.***( Not so. My Verizon DSL is 54mbps. Even when busy, it yields 36 mbps.)
While satellite Internet does offer those in rural areas a great way to connect to the Internet at a decent enough speed, there really isn't any challenge when comparing whether satellite is faster than DSL.
Another Note: HughesNet would take issue with these claims of DSL being faster.
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DSL broadband Internet technology can usually deliver speeds to a home from between 2Mbps to 8Mbps. On the other hand, satellite Internet usually delivers anywhere from 512 Kbps to 2Mbps. DSL broadband internet is also much cheaper than satellite internet. For instance, you should expect to pay about 3 times as much for comparable bandwidth and the modem and other equipment can cost you hundreds, if not thousands of dollars.***( Not so. My Verizon DSL is 54mbps. Even when busy, it yields 36 mbps.)
While satellite Internet does offer those in rural areas a great way to connect to the Internet at a decent enough speed, there really isn't any challenge when comparing whether satellite is faster than DSL.
Another Note: HughesNet would take issue with these claims of DSL being faster.
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Is DSL Faster than Satellite Internet
DSL, also called digital subscriber line, is a technology that delivers broadband Internet to many people's homes via their conventional telephone landline. DSL is one of two popular broadband Internet technologies used for the home market, the other being cable broadband which uses existing cable TV lines to deliver broadband Internet.
Another growing technology for delivering broadband internet to homes is Satellite Internet technology. While nowhere near as popular yet, satellite internet technology is gaining popularity in rural areas where landlines or cable TV lines are not available. In addition, satellite Internet technology is also a possibility for those homes that have satellite TV. The only thing usually required is a clear view of the satellite.
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Another growing technology for delivering broadband internet to homes is Satellite Internet technology. While nowhere near as popular yet, satellite internet technology is gaining popularity in rural areas where landlines or cable TV lines are not available. In addition, satellite Internet technology is also a possibility for those homes that have satellite TV. The only thing usually required is a clear view of the satellite.
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What is the Difference Between ISDN and DSL
Definitions
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN): ISDN is a digital transmission system, which is used to transmit voice and data through copper telephone wires. In other words, it's a circuit-switched data transmission system that is used for voice and data transmission over the wire.
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL): DSL is also a digital transmission system and utilizes already installed copper wires to send voice and data packets.
Differences
As far as the differences between ISDN and DSL transmission system are concerned, there are several differences one can find:
Speed
In terms of speed, DSL is faster than ISDN. DSL sends data packets with speeds ranging from 128Kbps – 1.5Mbps. On the other hand, ISDN comes in two different speeds i.e., 64Kbps and 128Kbps.
Price
In terms of price, ISDN is somewhat more expensive than DSL. The main reason is that DSL utilizes wires that are already installed into homes or businesses, and there is no special line installation needed. However, ISDN lines need to be installed and connection charges vary depending upon the connection you choose. In case of dedicated or, "always on" connections – you will have to pay more as some ISDN packages are charged on per minute basis. A special dial-up package, on the other hand, will cost less and might be an easy option where a DSL connection is still not available.
Technology
ISDN is a dial-up service and transmits voice and data through a single line. There are two types of ISDN: Basic Rate Interface (BRI) and Primary Rate Interface (PRI). BRI is used mostly for residential homes and comes with three channels. On the other hand, Primary Rate Interface (PRI) ISDN is a business version and comes with 24 channels. In this case, 23 B channels are used to transmit voice, data and video – all through the same wire. A D channel carries low speed data and signaling. This signaling is used to generate alarm signals and provide support for non-voice functions. ISDN does not transmit data through analog lines.
DSL connections are often referred to as "always on" connections, so don't do not need to dial up a number. In DSL, there is only a single route for carrying voice, data and video. Two types of DSL connections are widely: Symmetric DSL (SDSL) and Asymmetric DSL (ADSL). These two types of DSL connections differ in their data carrying capacities i.e., upload and download. For more downloading, ADSL is a better choice.
ISDN and DSL are both distance sensitive. To get either service, your place should not be more than 18,000 feet away from the central office.
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Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN): ISDN is a digital transmission system, which is used to transmit voice and data through copper telephone wires. In other words, it's a circuit-switched data transmission system that is used for voice and data transmission over the wire.
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL): DSL is also a digital transmission system and utilizes already installed copper wires to send voice and data packets.
Differences
As far as the differences between ISDN and DSL transmission system are concerned, there are several differences one can find:
Speed
In terms of speed, DSL is faster than ISDN. DSL sends data packets with speeds ranging from 128Kbps – 1.5Mbps. On the other hand, ISDN comes in two different speeds i.e., 64Kbps and 128Kbps.
Price
In terms of price, ISDN is somewhat more expensive than DSL. The main reason is that DSL utilizes wires that are already installed into homes or businesses, and there is no special line installation needed. However, ISDN lines need to be installed and connection charges vary depending upon the connection you choose. In case of dedicated or, "always on" connections – you will have to pay more as some ISDN packages are charged on per minute basis. A special dial-up package, on the other hand, will cost less and might be an easy option where a DSL connection is still not available.
Technology
ISDN is a dial-up service and transmits voice and data through a single line. There are two types of ISDN: Basic Rate Interface (BRI) and Primary Rate Interface (PRI). BRI is used mostly for residential homes and comes with three channels. On the other hand, Primary Rate Interface (PRI) ISDN is a business version and comes with 24 channels. In this case, 23 B channels are used to transmit voice, data and video – all through the same wire. A D channel carries low speed data and signaling. This signaling is used to generate alarm signals and provide support for non-voice functions. ISDN does not transmit data through analog lines.
DSL connections are often referred to as "always on" connections, so don't do not need to dial up a number. In DSL, there is only a single route for carrying voice, data and video. Two types of DSL connections are widely: Symmetric DSL (SDSL) and Asymmetric DSL (ADSL). These two types of DSL connections differ in their data carrying capacities i.e., upload and download. For more downloading, ADSL is a better choice.
ISDN and DSL are both distance sensitive. To get either service, your place should not be more than 18,000 feet away from the central office.
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Review of Cable and DSL Speeds
The most important thing to do is to compare the different connections of cable and DSL speeds. The cable modem offers bandwidths up to 30 Mbps while broadband DSL speeds are a maximum 10 Mbps. However, there is a type of DSL technology called VDSL that does have speeds comparable to the cable modem, but is rarely offered to customers due to financial and technical reasons.
There are some aspects of the cable modem that affect its advantage over DSL. As mentioned earlier, the cable modem bandwidth may be lowered when many subscribers are connected to the Internet at any one time. Also, Internet service providers may implement a bandwidth cap that affects Internet speeds for subscribes as well. Other issues that affect Internet speed regardless of a cable modem or DSL include technical glitches in the network, spyware, home network problems and wireless routers that are not configured correctly.
Most domestic cable modem Internet connections do not have the advantage of the possible 30 mbps bandwidth because most service providers offer a bandwidth of 1-6 mbps for downloads and an even lower bandwidth of 768 kbps for uploads. The reason service providers do this is to accommodate more customers with the existing bandwidth and provide an equal share of bandwidth to all customers when possible. Another aspect is that ISPs frequently cap the speed of the Internet connection in order to create several price points. This means subscribers can choose a faster connection if they want to pay more. This is really a scheme by ISPs to make more money.
When it comes to DSL connections the Internet speed depends upon the telephone line quality, how far the subscriber's home is from the telephone hub, and the technical reliability of the service provider among other things.
If you are looking for a great Internet connection and are choosing between a cable modem and DSL it is up to you to determine which provider will best suit your needs. There are advantages and disadvantages to both types of Internet service providers and you will be able to make a decision by comparing reliability, cost, customer support and other aspects in regard to your personal needs. Once this is done you will easily see which connection works best for you and can then proceed with installation and getting online!
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There are some aspects of the cable modem that affect its advantage over DSL. As mentioned earlier, the cable modem bandwidth may be lowered when many subscribers are connected to the Internet at any one time. Also, Internet service providers may implement a bandwidth cap that affects Internet speeds for subscribes as well. Other issues that affect Internet speed regardless of a cable modem or DSL include technical glitches in the network, spyware, home network problems and wireless routers that are not configured correctly.
Most domestic cable modem Internet connections do not have the advantage of the possible 30 mbps bandwidth because most service providers offer a bandwidth of 1-6 mbps for downloads and an even lower bandwidth of 768 kbps for uploads. The reason service providers do this is to accommodate more customers with the existing bandwidth and provide an equal share of bandwidth to all customers when possible. Another aspect is that ISPs frequently cap the speed of the Internet connection in order to create several price points. This means subscribers can choose a faster connection if they want to pay more. This is really a scheme by ISPs to make more money.
When it comes to DSL connections the Internet speed depends upon the telephone line quality, how far the subscriber's home is from the telephone hub, and the technical reliability of the service provider among other things.
If you are looking for a great Internet connection and are choosing between a cable modem and DSL it is up to you to determine which provider will best suit your needs. There are advantages and disadvantages to both types of Internet service providers and you will be able to make a decision by comparing reliability, cost, customer support and other aspects in regard to your personal needs. Once this is done you will easily see which connection works best for you and can then proceed with installation and getting online!
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DSL Broadband
DSL broadband is a bit different because it relies on residential telephone lines to provide web access. The speed of the Internet is sometimes faster than the speed provided by a cable modem especially when multiple users are accessing the web. However, the biggest disadvantage with the DSL broadband connections is that the further one lives from the service provider the speed of data transfer decreases significantly. So, if you live far from the service provider your Internet connection speed will be slower and vice versa.
When comparing the cable modem to DSL broadband it is obvious that the cable modem is faster than broadband DSL when bandwidth sharing is balanced. However, in the real world there are some instances where the advantage of the cable modem is eliminated because of technical reasons.
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When comparing the cable modem to DSL broadband it is obvious that the cable modem is faster than broadband DSL when bandwidth sharing is balanced. However, in the real world there are some instances where the advantage of the cable modem is eliminated because of technical reasons.
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Cable Modem
Generally the cable modem is used domestically in homes. This is because of the convenience and affordability factors due to the fact that the cable modem transfers the Internet data along he same cable as television programming. This technology is due to separate wires within the cable that are dedicated either to cable television programming or Internet data transfer.
This design is profitable to the service provider because there are no additional set up costs and the unused bandwidth is utilized for Internet transfer. Another aspect of the cable modem is that individuals within an area rely on the same cable for access to the World Wide Web. As a result, the sharing of bandwidth among so many subscribers within a similar area might result in slower connections and downloads/uploads when multiple users are trying to access the net simultaneously.
Also, with cable modem Internet access the distance of the customer's home from the service provider does not have an impact on the Internet speed. This is not the case with broadband DSL users.
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This design is profitable to the service provider because there are no additional set up costs and the unused bandwidth is utilized for Internet transfer. Another aspect of the cable modem is that individuals within an area rely on the same cable for access to the World Wide Web. As a result, the sharing of bandwidth among so many subscribers within a similar area might result in slower connections and downloads/uploads when multiple users are trying to access the net simultaneously.
Also, with cable modem Internet access the distance of the customer's home from the service provider does not have an impact on the Internet speed. This is not the case with broadband DSL users.
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DSL vs Cable Modem
Two of the most popular technologies that offer speedy access to the World Wide Web are DSL broadband and the cable modem. There are several reasons why this is the case and the first one is that both of these Internet connections are considerably faster than the standard dialup connections. However, when you compare the speed of data transfer between DSL and a cable modem there is a bit of variance depending on various technical aspects. Because of these variances DSL and the cable modem might have the advantage at different times. An overview of both technologies will clearly show the advantages and disadvantages of both.
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What is a DSL Filter and How DSL Filters Work
A DSL filter is an analog device that improves a DSL connection by minimizing telephone signal interference with the DSL system. When installed, it acts as a barrier to prevent low frequency telephone signals to interfere with the high frequency ADSL system and vice versa.
How DSL Filters Work
Telephone signals usually range from 300 to 3400 hertz, while ADSL systems use frequencies between 25 KHz and 1.1 MHz to carry fast data traffic. Both signals are present and they pass through the same copper wire. With both signals working at the same time in the same line, interference is possible causing problems for ADSL (low speed) and telephone (line noise) connections.
A DSL filter is usually just a small plastic box with a plug which goes to your phone socket. It has two outputs, one for your DSL modem and another for the telephone. By filtering and sending the right frequencies to the appropriate sockets, a DSL filter reduces interference problems. It also maximizes the 1.1 MHz frequency capacity of the copper line by attenuating the tendencies of the two signals interfering with each other.
Installing DSL filters does not require a technician's help. More often than not, most companies send the micro-filters with the DSL modem directly to the end user. To install a DSL filter, you have to take the steps listed below.
1. Plug your phone and modem into the RJ11 jack.
2. Switch on the DSL modem and see if your computer will connect to the Internet.
3. Check your phone for a dial tone.
The methods for installing more than one DSL filter are listed below:
1. Unplug other phones in your house before installing the DSL filters.
2. Immediately check for a dial tone on each phone after installing the filters.
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How DSL Filters Work
Telephone signals usually range from 300 to 3400 hertz, while ADSL systems use frequencies between 25 KHz and 1.1 MHz to carry fast data traffic. Both signals are present and they pass through the same copper wire. With both signals working at the same time in the same line, interference is possible causing problems for ADSL (low speed) and telephone (line noise) connections.
A DSL filter is usually just a small plastic box with a plug which goes to your phone socket. It has two outputs, one for your DSL modem and another for the telephone. By filtering and sending the right frequencies to the appropriate sockets, a DSL filter reduces interference problems. It also maximizes the 1.1 MHz frequency capacity of the copper line by attenuating the tendencies of the two signals interfering with each other.
Installing DSL filters does not require a technician's help. More often than not, most companies send the micro-filters with the DSL modem directly to the end user. To install a DSL filter, you have to take the steps listed below.
1. Plug your phone and modem into the RJ11 jack.
2. Switch on the DSL modem and see if your computer will connect to the Internet.
3. Check your phone for a dial tone.
The methods for installing more than one DSL filter are listed below:
1. Unplug other phones in your house before installing the DSL filters.
2. Immediately check for a dial tone on each phone after installing the filters.
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What is Symmetric DSL
Symmetric DSL, more commonly known as SDSL, is one kind of Digital Subscriber Line (DSL).
SDSL provides bandwidth between 72kb/s and 2,320kb/s.
Symmetric DSL is called "symmetrical" because the upstream and downstream connections have the same bandwidth.
SDSL requires only one pair of wired copper line to support a connection. These wires may reach as long as 3 kilometers.
Unlike Asymmetric DSL, Symmetric DSL uses the entire available bandwidth of the two copper wires. This means that regular analog telephone service through the PSTN is not possible over the same wires.
Symmetric DSL is a type of DSL technology which focuses on rate adaptation.
SDSL is usually more expensive than ADSL, but less expensive than a T1/E1 leased line. SDSL outperforms ADSL for dedicated data connections where upstream and downstream traffic is similar.
Symmetric DSL is slowly being replaced with G.SHDSL (Single-Pair High-speed Digital Subscriber Line).
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SDSL provides bandwidth between 72kb/s and 2,320kb/s.
Symmetric DSL is called "symmetrical" because the upstream and downstream connections have the same bandwidth.
SDSL requires only one pair of wired copper line to support a connection. These wires may reach as long as 3 kilometers.
Unlike Asymmetric DSL, Symmetric DSL uses the entire available bandwidth of the two copper wires. This means that regular analog telephone service through the PSTN is not possible over the same wires.
Symmetric DSL is a type of DSL technology which focuses on rate adaptation.
SDSL is usually more expensive than ADSL, but less expensive than a T1/E1 leased line. SDSL outperforms ADSL for dedicated data connections where upstream and downstream traffic is similar.
Symmetric DSL is slowly being replaced with G.SHDSL (Single-Pair High-speed Digital Subscriber Line).
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What is an ADSL Router
Definition
An ADSL router is also known as a DSL modem. The router is used to connect the computer to the DSL phone line for using the ADSL service. Some countries also use the term NTBBA, which stands for Network Termination BroadBand Access. There are some ADSL routers that are also capable of sharing a single Internet connection with a group of computers on a network. This system is also known as the residential gateway.
The ATU-R
Every ADSL router has a functional block called ADSL Terminal Unit-Remote, or the ATU-R (transceiver). The ATU-R is responsible for functions like demodulation, modulation, and framing. There are other functional blocks as well that perform specific functions like IP routing and bridging. The interfaces for the ADSL router are either Ethernet or USB. The ADSL modem might have been assigned an IP address from the beginning for management purposes, though an ADSL router that works as a bridge does not need an IP address.
Router Placement
The ADSL router in most cases is not placed inside the computer. It is connected to the computer's port, like the USB port or Ethernet. Voiceband modems, on the other hand, are placed inside the computer. The Windows operating systems, as well as other operating systems, do not recognize the ADSL router. There is no property sheet or an internal method to manage them. The reason is that the computer and the transceiver are separate nodes in the LAN. The transceiver (ADSL modem) is not controlled by the computer, unlike the keyboard and mouse.
Configuration
The ADSL router can be configured manually by opening a Web page in the browser. Some routers require no configuration because they are incorporated into the physical layer of the network. The frequencies of the router range between 25 kHz and 1 MHz. Hence, it does not interfere with the voice service, whose bandwidth ranges between 0 and 4 KHz. Hence, you can talk on the phone even if you have powered on the router and are using the Internet. Voiceband modems, on the other hand, work on the same frequency as the telephone; hence, they might interfere with the voice service.
Speed
The speed of the ADSL router varies and depends on the plan you have purchased from your ISP. Speeds vary from hundreds of kilobits per second to megabits per second. The ADSL router exchanges data with the wired DSLAM that is connected to the Internet. The router is configured for particular protocols only and might not work even on another line in the same house or company.
Hardware Components
The hardware components of the ADSL router are a transformer and a data connection such as Ethernet or USB. Also required are the digital data pump, a line driver, a filter, and a micro controller.
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An ADSL router is also known as a DSL modem. The router is used to connect the computer to the DSL phone line for using the ADSL service. Some countries also use the term NTBBA, which stands for Network Termination BroadBand Access. There are some ADSL routers that are also capable of sharing a single Internet connection with a group of computers on a network. This system is also known as the residential gateway.
The ATU-R
Every ADSL router has a functional block called ADSL Terminal Unit-Remote, or the ATU-R (transceiver). The ATU-R is responsible for functions like demodulation, modulation, and framing. There are other functional blocks as well that perform specific functions like IP routing and bridging. The interfaces for the ADSL router are either Ethernet or USB. The ADSL modem might have been assigned an IP address from the beginning for management purposes, though an ADSL router that works as a bridge does not need an IP address.
Router Placement
The ADSL router in most cases is not placed inside the computer. It is connected to the computer's port, like the USB port or Ethernet. Voiceband modems, on the other hand, are placed inside the computer. The Windows operating systems, as well as other operating systems, do not recognize the ADSL router. There is no property sheet or an internal method to manage them. The reason is that the computer and the transceiver are separate nodes in the LAN. The transceiver (ADSL modem) is not controlled by the computer, unlike the keyboard and mouse.
Configuration
The ADSL router can be configured manually by opening a Web page in the browser. Some routers require no configuration because they are incorporated into the physical layer of the network. The frequencies of the router range between 25 kHz and 1 MHz. Hence, it does not interfere with the voice service, whose bandwidth ranges between 0 and 4 KHz. Hence, you can talk on the phone even if you have powered on the router and are using the Internet. Voiceband modems, on the other hand, work on the same frequency as the telephone; hence, they might interfere with the voice service.
Speed
The speed of the ADSL router varies and depends on the plan you have purchased from your ISP. Speeds vary from hundreds of kilobits per second to megabits per second. The ADSL router exchanges data with the wired DSLAM that is connected to the Internet. The router is configured for particular protocols only and might not work even on another line in the same house or company.
Hardware Components
The hardware components of the ADSL router are a transformer and a data connection such as Ethernet or USB. Also required are the digital data pump, a line driver, a filter, and a micro controller.
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DSL
How ADSL works
ADSL makes use of your existing telephone line. It splits the line into two distinct channels, one for data connection and the other for voice. The ADSL signal requires 2 special modems. One is used at your end while the other is used in the telephone exchange. Each modem is geared to a different frequency. Your telephone line is prepared for ADSL by opening up the copper pair to high frequencies and then routing the digital data in these frequencies to a Digital Subscriber Line Access Multiplexer (DSLAM) which converts this signal to ATM packets. The signal is then sent back to the servers and the server then forwards the request and assigns an IP address to the client.
ADSL modulation exists in two schemes. One is Carrierless Amplitude (CAP) and the other is Discrete Multi-Tone (DMT). These modulation schemes allow data transmission over high frequencies thus increasing internet access speed. The two schemes are used for both upstream and downstream data transmission. However, most modern installations are based on the DMT modulation scheme. The idea behind DMT is to split the bandwidth into a large number of sub channels and allocate data so that the throughput of every single sub channel is maximized.
Advantages of ADSL
1. Unlike traditional dial up connection where one session could only be used by one user, ADSL allows several users to share one account meaning the cost can be split between multiple users.
2. ADSL uses standard telephone lines for digital transmission thus setting the analog transmission signals apart from the digital. This allows normal usage of the telephone facility even as you are browsing the internet.
3. Allows for high speed internet access without the cost of ISDN.
4. ADSL 2 and ADSL 2+ have the advantage that they offer several improvements to ADSL. Some of these improvements include faster data transmission of up to 20 Mbps, dynamic data rate adaptation, standby power saver, better resistance to noise etc.
5. ADSL transfers data digitally and digital data has a higher noise tolerance than analog data.
Posted by: Wasim Javed
ADSL modulation exists in two schemes. One is Carrierless Amplitude (CAP) and the other is Discrete Multi-Tone (DMT). These modulation schemes allow data transmission over high frequencies thus increasing internet access speed. The two schemes are used for both upstream and downstream data transmission. However, most modern installations are based on the DMT modulation scheme. The idea behind DMT is to split the bandwidth into a large number of sub channels and allocate data so that the throughput of every single sub channel is maximized.
Advantages of ADSL
1. Unlike traditional dial up connection where one session could only be used by one user, ADSL allows several users to share one account meaning the cost can be split between multiple users.
2. ADSL uses standard telephone lines for digital transmission thus setting the analog transmission signals apart from the digital. This allows normal usage of the telephone facility even as you are browsing the internet.
3. Allows for high speed internet access without the cost of ISDN.
4. ADSL 2 and ADSL 2+ have the advantage that they offer several improvements to ADSL. Some of these improvements include faster data transmission of up to 20 Mbps, dynamic data rate adaptation, standby power saver, better resistance to noise etc.
5. ADSL transfers data digitally and digital data has a higher noise tolerance than analog data.
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DSL
What is ADSL
ADSL is the acronym for Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line. ADSL is a loose set of protocols that allows for high speed internet access over normal copper telephone lines or what is more commonly known as POTS (Plain Old Telephone Service). This is possible because the signals are sent digitally instead of through analog waves. ADSL is known as asymmetric because the download and upload speeds are not symmetrical with download speeds being averagely faster than upload speeds. Upstream data speeds are lower because requests for web pages normally do not require a lot of bandwidth.
ADSL provides internet access that is constantly on unlike dial up phone access. That way, your computer remains connected to the internet when it is powered on unless the cable is manually disconnected. ADSL allows for the simultaneous use of normal telephone services (voice), Integrated Service Digital Network (ISDN) and high speed data transmission such as video. ADSL provides much higher bandwidth than traditional dial up connections. Speeds can range from 512Kbps to 9 Mbps.
Posted by: Wasim Javed
ADSL provides internet access that is constantly on unlike dial up phone access. That way, your computer remains connected to the internet when it is powered on unless the cable is manually disconnected. ADSL allows for the simultaneous use of normal telephone services (voice), Integrated Service Digital Network (ISDN) and high speed data transmission such as video. ADSL provides much higher bandwidth than traditional dial up connections. Speeds can range from 512Kbps to 9 Mbps.
Posted by: Wasim Javed
Labels:
DSL
What is a VLAN
The Basic Definition
The acronym VLAN expands to Virtual Local Area Network. A VLAN is a logical local area network (or LAN) that extends beyond a single traditional LAN to a group of LAN segments, given specific configurations. Because a VLAN is a logical entity, its creation and configuration is done completely in software.
How Is a VLAN Identified
Since a VLAN is a software concept, identifiers and configurations for a VLAN must be properly prepared for it to function as expected. Frame coloring is the process used to ensure that VLAN members or groups are properly identified and handled. With frame coloring, packets are given the proper VLAN ID at their origin so that they may be properly processed as they pass through the network. The VLAN ID is then used to enable switching and routing engines to make the appropriate decisions as defined in the VLAN configuration.
Why Use VLANs
Traditional network designs use routers to create broadcast domains and limit broadcasts between multiple subnets. This prevents broadcast floods in larger networks from consuming resources, or causing unintentional denials of service unnecessarily. Unfortunately, the traditional network design methodology has some flaws in design
• Geographic Focus - Traditional network designs focus on physical locations of equipment and personnel for addressing and LAN segment placement. Because of this there are a few significant drawbacks:
• Network segments for physically disjointed organizations cannot be part of the same address space. Each physical location must be addressed independently, and be part of its own broadcast domain. This can force personnel to be located in a central location, or to have additional latency or connectivity shortfalls.
• Relocations of personnel and departments can become difficult, especially if the original location retains its network segments. Relocated equipment will have to be reconfigured based on the new network configuration.
A VLAN solution can alleviate both of these drawbacks by permitting the same broadcast domain to extend beyond a single segment.
• Additional Bandwidth Usage - Traditional network designs require additional bandwidth because packets have to pass through multiple levels of network connectivity because the network is segmented.
A proper VLAN design can ensure that only devices that have that VLAN defined on it will receive and forward packets intended as source or destination of the network flow.
Types of VLAN
There are only two types of VLAN possible today, cell-based VLANs and frame-based VLANs.
• Cell-based VLANs are used in ATM switched networks with LAN Emulation (or LANE). LANE is used to allow hosts on legacy LAN segments to communicate using ATM networks without having to use special hardware or software modification.
• Frame-based VLANs are used in ethernet networks with frame tagging. The two primary types of frame tagging are IEEE 802.10 and ISL (Inter Switch Link is a Cisco proprietary frame-tagging). Keep in mind that the 802.10 standard makes it possible to deploy VLANs with 802.3 (Ethernet), 802.5 (Token-Ring), and FDDI, but ethernet is most common.
VLAN modes
There are three different modes in which a VLAN can be configured. These modes are covered below:
• VLAN Switching Mode - The VLAN forms a switching bridge in which frames are forwarded unmodified.
• VLAN Translation Mode - VLAN translation mode is used when the frame tagging method is changed in the network path, or if the frame traverses from a VLAN group to a legacy or native interface which is not configured in a VLAN. When the packet is to pass into a native interface, the VLAN tag is removed so that the packet can properly enter the native interface.
• VLAN Routing Mode - When a packet is routed from one VLAN to a different VLAN, you use VLAN routing mode. The packet is modified, usually by a router, which places its own MAC address as the source, and then changes the VLAN ID of the packet.
VLAN configurations
Different terminology is used between different hardware manufacturers when it comes to VLANs. Because of this there is often confusion at implementation time. Following are a few details, and some examples to assist you in defining your VLANs so confusion is not an issue.
Cisco VLAN terminology
You need a few details to define a VLAN on most Cisco equipment. Unfortunately, because Cisco sometimes acquires the technologies they use to fill their switching, routing and security product lines, naming conventions are not always consistent. For this article, we are focusing only one Cisco switching and routing product lines running Cisco IOS.
• VLAN ID - The VLAN ID is a unique value you assign to each VLAN on a single device. With a Cisco routing or switching device running IOS, your range is from 1-4096. When you define a VLAN you usually use the syntax "vlan x" where x is the number you would like to assign to the VLAN ID. VLAN 1 is reserved as an administrative VLAN. If VLAN technologies are enabled, all ports are a member of VLAN 1 by default.
• VLAN Name - The VLAN name is an text based name you use to identify your VLAN, perhaps to help technical staff in understanding its function. The string you use can be between 1 and 32 characters in length.
• Private VLAN - You also define if the VLAN is to be a private vlan in the VLAN definition, and what other VLAN might be associated with it in the definition section. When you configure a Cisco VLAN as a private-vlan, this means that ports that are members of the VLAN cannot communicate directly with each other by default. Normally all ports which are members of a VLAN can communicate directly with each other just as they would be able to would they have been a member of a standard network segment. Private vlans are created to enhance the security on a network where hosts coexisting on the network cannot or should not trust each other. This is a common practice to use on web farms or in other high risk environments where communication between hosts on the same subnet are not necessary. Check your Cisco documentation if you have questions about how to configure and deploy private VLANs.
• VLAN modes - in Cisco IOS, there are only two modes an interface can operate in, "mode access" and "mode trunk". Access mode is for end devices or devices that will not require multiple VLANs. Trunk mode is used for passing multiple VLANs to other network devices, or for end devices that need to have membership to multiple VLANs at once. If you are wondering what mode to use, the mode is probably "mode access".
Cisco VLAN implementations
VLAN Definition
To define a VLAN on a cisco device, you need a VLAN ID, a VLAN name, ports you would like to participate in the VLAN, and the type of membership the port will have with the VLAN.
• Step 1 - Log into the router or switch in question and get into enable mode.
• Step 2 - Get into configuration mode using "conf t".
• Step 3 - Create your VLAN by entering "vlan X" where X is the ID you would like to assign the VLAN.
• Step 4 - Name your VLAN by entering "name". Replace with the string you would like to identify your VLAN by.
• Step 5 - If you want your new VLAN to be a private-vlan, you now enter "private-vlan primary" and "private-vlan association Y" where Y is the secondary VLAN you want to associate with the primary vlan. If you would like the private VLAN to be community based, you enter "private-vlan community" instead.
• Step 6 - Exit configuration mode by entering "end".
• Step 7 - Save your configuration to memory by entering "wr mem" and to the network if you have need using "wr net". You may have to supply additional information to write configurations to the network depending on your device configuration.
You have now created a vlan by assigning it an ID, and giving it a name. At this point, the VLAN has no special configuration to handle IP traffic, nor are there any ports that are members of the VLAN. The next section describes how you complete your vlan configuration.
VLAN Configuration
A VLAN isn't much use if you haven't assigned it an IP Address, the subnet netmask, and port membership. In normal network segment configurations on routers, individual interfaces or groups of interfaces (called channels) are assigned IP addresses . When you use VLANs, individual interfaces are members of VLANs and do not have individual IP addresses, and generally don't have access lists applied to them. Those features are usually reserved for the VLAN interfaces. The following steps detail one method of creating and configuring your VLAN interface. NOTE: These steps have already assumed that you have logged into the router, gotten into enable mode, and entered configuration mode. These specific examples are based on the Cisco 6500 series devices.
• Step 1 - Enter "Interface VlanX" where X is the VLAN ID you used in the VLAN definition above.
• Step 2 - This step is optional. Enter "description " where VLAN description details what the VLAN is going to be used for. You can just simply re-use the VLAN name you used above if you like.
• Step 3 - Enter "ip address" where is the address you want to assign this device in the VLAN, and is the network mask for the subnet you have assigned the VLAN.
• Step 4 - The step is optional
• Create and apply an access list to the VLAN for inbound and outbound access controls. For a standard access list enter "access-group XXX in" and "access-group YYY out" where XXX and YYY corresponds to access-lists you have previously configured. Remember that the terms are taken in respect to the specific subnet or interface, so "in" means from the VLAN INTO the router, and "out" means from the router OUT to the VLAN.
• Step 5 - This step is optional. Enter the private VLAN mapping you would like to use if the port is part of a private VLAN. This should be the same secondary VLAN you associated with the primary VLAN in VLAN definition above. Enter "private-vlan mapping XX" where XX is the VLAN ID of the secondary VLAN you would like to associate with this VLAN.
• Step 6 - This step is optional. Configure HSRP and any other basic interface configurations you would normally use for your Cisco device.
• Step 7 - Exit configuration mode by entering "end".
• Step 8 - Save your configuration to memory by entering "wr mem" and to the network if you have need using "wr net". You may have to supply additional information to write configurations to the network depending on your device configuration.
Now you have your vlan defined and configured, but no physical ports are a member of the VLAN, so the VLAN still isn't of much use. Next port membership in the VLAN is described. IOS devices describe interfaces based on a technology and a port number, as with "FastEthernet3/1" or "GigabitEthernet8/16". Once you have determined which physical ports you want to be members of the VLAN you can use the following steps to configure it. NOTE: These steps have already assumed that you have logged into the router, gotten into enable mode, and entered configuration mode.
• Step 1 - Enter "Interface" where is the name Cisco has assigned the interface you would like to associate with the VLAN.
• Step 2 - This step is optional. Enter "description" where is text describing the system connected to the interface in question. It is usually helpful to provide DNS hostname, IP Address, which port on the remote system is connected, and its function.
• Step 3 - This step depends on your equipment and IOS version, and requirements. Enter "switchport" if you need the interface to act as a switch port. Some hardware does not support switchport mode, and can only be used as a router port. Check your documentation if you don't know the difference between a router port and a switch port.
• Step 4 - Only use this step if you used step 3 above. Enter "switchport access vlan X" where X is the VLAN ID of the VLAN you want the port to be a member of.
• Step 5 - Only use this step if you used step 3 above. Enter "switchport mode access" to tell the port that you want it to be used as an access port.
• Step 6 - Exit configuration mode by entering "end".
• Step 7 - Save your configuration to memory by entering "wr mem" and to the network if you have need using "wr net". You may have to supply additional information to write configurations to the network depending on your device configuration.
• Step 1 - Enter "Interface" where is the name Cisco has assigned the interface you would like to associate with the VLAN.
• Step 2 - This step is optional. Enter "description" where is text describing the system connected to the interface in question. It is usually helpful to provide DNS hostname, IP Address, which port on the remote system is connected, and its function.
• Step 3 - This step depends on your equipment and IOS version, and requirements. Enter "switchport" if you need the interface to act as a switch port. Some hardware does not support switchport mode, and can only be used as a router port. Check your documentation if you don't know the difference between a router port and a switch port.
• Step 4 - Only use this step if you used step 3 above. Enter "switchport trunk encapsulation dot1q". This tells the VLAN to use dot1q encapsulation for the VLAN, which is the industry standard encapsulation for trunking. There are other encapsulation options, but your equipment may not operate with non Cisco equipment if you use them.
• Step 5 - Only use this step if you used step 3 above. Enter "switchport trunk allowed vlan XX, YY, ZZ" where XX, YY, and ZZ are VLANs you want the trunk to include. You can define one or more VLANs to be allowed in the trunk.
• Step 6 - Only use this step if you used step 3 above. Enter "switchport mode trunk" to tell the port to operate as a VLAN trunk, and not as an access port.
• Step 7 - Exit configuration mode by entering "end".
• Step 8 - Save your configuration to memory by entering "wr mem" and to the
network if you have need using "wr net". You may have to supply additional information to write configurations to the network depending on your device configuration.
• Step 1 - Enter "Interface" where is the name Cisco has assigned the interface you would like to associate with the VLAN.
• Step 2 - This step is optional. Enter "description" where is text describing the system connected to the interface in question. It is usually helpful to provide DNS hostname, IP Address, which port on the remote system is connected, and its function.
• Step 3 - This step depends on your equipment and IOS version, and requirements. Enter "switchport" if you need the interface to act as a switch port. Some hardware does not support switchport mode, and can only be used as a router port. Check your documentation if you don't know the difference between a router port and a switch port.
• Step 4 - Enter "switchport private-vlan host association XX YY" where XX is the primary VLAN you want to assign, YY is the secondary VLAN you want to associate with it.
• Step 5 - Enter "switchport mode private-vlan host" to force the port to operate as a private-vlan in host mode.
• Step 6 - Exit configuration mode by entering "end".
• Step 7 - Save your configuration to memory by entering "wr mem" and to the network if you have need using "wr net". You may have to supply additional information to write configurations to the network depending on your device configuration.
You should now have your VLAN properly implemented on a Cisco IOS device.
HP VLAN terminology
HP's Procurve line of switchgear is becoming more and more prevalent in enterprise and other business environments. Because of this, it isn't uncommon to have to get Cisco and Procurve hardware to integrate, and because of terminology this can be a challenge. Below some of the VLAN terminology is defined so there is less opportunity for confusion.
• VLAN ID - Fortunately, VLAN id's are pretty much the same everywhere, the only significant differences are the range of IDs that can be used. With Procurve devices, the number of VLANs is defined in the configuration. The default maximum VLANs supported on a Procurve device differs between models and firmware revisions, but is commonly set to 8. Newer Procurve hardware supports 4,096 VLAN ids, but only 256 concurrently defined VLANs on a single device. VLAN ID 1 is reserved for the "DEFAULT_VLAN" or the default administrative VLAN.
• VLAN names - VLAN names are text fields that assist technicians to identify VLANs. Procurve allows names up to 32 characters, but if you want it to properly display in menu configuration mode, you should probably limit the name to 12 characters.
• VLAN modes - Procurve has three modes of operation for VLANs on the chassis, Untagged, Tagged, and No. Untagged mode is cisco's access mode. This mode is used for ports that connect to end nodes, or devices that will not be passing VLAN traffic forward. Tagged mode is the same as Cisco's trunk mode. This mode is used for ports that are connecting to devices that will be passing VLAN traffic forward, or for trunking multiple VLANs. No mode means that the port in question has no association whatsoever with that VLAN.
• Special note on "trunk" - Lots of confusion surrounds the word "trunk" when you go between vendor equipment. In Cisco's case, trunking is only used with VLANs. If you want to group multiple ethernet ports into a single logical ethernet group, they call it a channel-group. This is regardless of whether FEC or LACP is used for the channel properties. Procurve uses "trunk" to define a group of ethernet ports when using the HP trunking protocol, and the term "Tagged" for what Cisco calls a VLAN trunk. Of course, these two technologies have nothing to do with each other, but because of naming conventions, confusion arises.
HP Procurve VLAN implementations
VLAN Definition
Most modern Procurve switches enable VLAN use by default, but if, for some reason, you have an older model, log into the switch, get into manager mode, go to the switch configuration menu (usually item 2), then the VLAN menu (usually item 8), then the VLAN support item (usually item 1), and make sure VLANs are enabled. If you change this setting, you will need to reboot the switch to get it to activate properly. The configuration menu is useful for these kinds of activities, troubleshooting, and other things, but is a little more difficult for configuring multiple switches or for using configuration templates, so the rest of the HP Procurve configuration details will be provided for the console configuration mode. Aside for enabling VLAN support as a whole, VLAN definitions and configuration are created in the same place, so the rest of the configuration examples will be provided under the VLAN configuration topic.
VLAN Configuration
Configuring VLANs on a modern Procurve is pretty simple, you must first define the VLAN, set its properties, and then set up membership for ports and the VLAN mode they will support. The following list should help you accomplish these tasks. NOTE: HP has defined its interface ports by using a module/port convention. If you have a non-modular chassis (such as the 3448cl) then ports are numbered only using numbers, such as 1 or 36. If the chassis is modular (such as the 5308) then the ports number is prepended with the module slot, such as A1 or H6. No reference to the type of switch port (ethernet, fast ethernet, gigabit ethernet) is used for port reference.
• Step 1 - Log into the switch and get into manager mode. If, after logging in, you are in the configuration menu, exit the configuration menu by selecting item 5 (in most cases) or by using the arrow keys on your keyboard to highlight the "Command Line (CLI)" item.
• Step 2 - Enter "conf t" to get into terminal configuration mode.
• Step 3 - Enter "vlan X" where X is the VLAN id of the VLAN you would like to create.
• Step 4 - Name your VLAN by entering "name """ where is a text string from 1 to 32 characters (12 characters if you care about the configuration menu display). You should use quotes when naming the VLAN.
• Step 5 - Give the VLAN an IP address by entering "ip address " where is the IP address you want to assign this switch in that subnet, and is the network mask for the subnet assigned.
• Step 6 - This step is optional. If you want to assign some end node ports to the VLAN enter "untagged" where is a list of ports either comma delimited if they are non-sequential, or using a dash between list beginning and end if they are. An example of this is "untagged 1,3,5,7-16". This would configure ports 1, 3, 5, and 7 through 16 to be untagged on that VLAN.
• Step 7 - This step is optional. If you want to assign some VLAN trunk ports to the VLAN enter "tagged" where is a list of ports either comma delimited if they are non-sequential, or using a dash between list beginning and end if they are. An example of this is "untagged 1,3,5,7-16". This would configure ports 1, 3, 5, and 7 through 16 to be untagged on that VLAN.
• Step 8 - Enter "exit" to leave VLAN configuration mode.
• Step 9 - Exit configuration mode by entering "exit" again.
• Step 10 - Save your configuration by entering "wr memory".
You have now successfully configured your HP Procurve VLAN
Vendor Summary
If you are going to integrate Cisco and HP Procurve hardware on the same network, and you intend to use VLANs there are only a few things you need to remember:
• For end nodes - Cisco uses "mode access", HP uses "untagged" mode.
• For VLAN dot1q trunks - Cisco uses "mode trunk", HP uses "tagged" mode.
• For no VLAN association - Cisco uses no notation at all, HP uses "no" mode in the configuration menu, or you have VLAN support turned off.
Next time you have to integrate the two with VLANs, this simple list should help keep you out of trouble.
Posted by: Wasim Javed
The acronym VLAN expands to Virtual Local Area Network. A VLAN is a logical local area network (or LAN) that extends beyond a single traditional LAN to a group of LAN segments, given specific configurations. Because a VLAN is a logical entity, its creation and configuration is done completely in software.
How Is a VLAN Identified
Since a VLAN is a software concept, identifiers and configurations for a VLAN must be properly prepared for it to function as expected. Frame coloring is the process used to ensure that VLAN members or groups are properly identified and handled. With frame coloring, packets are given the proper VLAN ID at their origin so that they may be properly processed as they pass through the network. The VLAN ID is then used to enable switching and routing engines to make the appropriate decisions as defined in the VLAN configuration.
Why Use VLANs
Traditional network designs use routers to create broadcast domains and limit broadcasts between multiple subnets. This prevents broadcast floods in larger networks from consuming resources, or causing unintentional denials of service unnecessarily. Unfortunately, the traditional network design methodology has some flaws in design
• Geographic Focus - Traditional network designs focus on physical locations of equipment and personnel for addressing and LAN segment placement. Because of this there are a few significant drawbacks:
• Network segments for physically disjointed organizations cannot be part of the same address space. Each physical location must be addressed independently, and be part of its own broadcast domain. This can force personnel to be located in a central location, or to have additional latency or connectivity shortfalls.
• Relocations of personnel and departments can become difficult, especially if the original location retains its network segments. Relocated equipment will have to be reconfigured based on the new network configuration.
A VLAN solution can alleviate both of these drawbacks by permitting the same broadcast domain to extend beyond a single segment.
• Additional Bandwidth Usage - Traditional network designs require additional bandwidth because packets have to pass through multiple levels of network connectivity because the network is segmented.
A proper VLAN design can ensure that only devices that have that VLAN defined on it will receive and forward packets intended as source or destination of the network flow.
Types of VLAN
There are only two types of VLAN possible today, cell-based VLANs and frame-based VLANs.
• Cell-based VLANs are used in ATM switched networks with LAN Emulation (or LANE). LANE is used to allow hosts on legacy LAN segments to communicate using ATM networks without having to use special hardware or software modification.
• Frame-based VLANs are used in ethernet networks with frame tagging. The two primary types of frame tagging are IEEE 802.10 and ISL (Inter Switch Link is a Cisco proprietary frame-tagging). Keep in mind that the 802.10 standard makes it possible to deploy VLANs with 802.3 (Ethernet), 802.5 (Token-Ring), and FDDI, but ethernet is most common.
VLAN modes
There are three different modes in which a VLAN can be configured. These modes are covered below:
• VLAN Switching Mode - The VLAN forms a switching bridge in which frames are forwarded unmodified.
• VLAN Translation Mode - VLAN translation mode is used when the frame tagging method is changed in the network path, or if the frame traverses from a VLAN group to a legacy or native interface which is not configured in a VLAN. When the packet is to pass into a native interface, the VLAN tag is removed so that the packet can properly enter the native interface.
• VLAN Routing Mode - When a packet is routed from one VLAN to a different VLAN, you use VLAN routing mode. The packet is modified, usually by a router, which places its own MAC address as the source, and then changes the VLAN ID of the packet.
VLAN configurations
Different terminology is used between different hardware manufacturers when it comes to VLANs. Because of this there is often confusion at implementation time. Following are a few details, and some examples to assist you in defining your VLANs so confusion is not an issue.
Cisco VLAN terminology
You need a few details to define a VLAN on most Cisco equipment. Unfortunately, because Cisco sometimes acquires the technologies they use to fill their switching, routing and security product lines, naming conventions are not always consistent. For this article, we are focusing only one Cisco switching and routing product lines running Cisco IOS.
• VLAN ID - The VLAN ID is a unique value you assign to each VLAN on a single device. With a Cisco routing or switching device running IOS, your range is from 1-4096. When you define a VLAN you usually use the syntax "vlan x" where x is the number you would like to assign to the VLAN ID. VLAN 1 is reserved as an administrative VLAN. If VLAN technologies are enabled, all ports are a member of VLAN 1 by default.
• VLAN Name - The VLAN name is an text based name you use to identify your VLAN, perhaps to help technical staff in understanding its function. The string you use can be between 1 and 32 characters in length.
• Private VLAN - You also define if the VLAN is to be a private vlan in the VLAN definition, and what other VLAN might be associated with it in the definition section. When you configure a Cisco VLAN as a private-vlan, this means that ports that are members of the VLAN cannot communicate directly with each other by default. Normally all ports which are members of a VLAN can communicate directly with each other just as they would be able to would they have been a member of a standard network segment. Private vlans are created to enhance the security on a network where hosts coexisting on the network cannot or should not trust each other. This is a common practice to use on web farms or in other high risk environments where communication between hosts on the same subnet are not necessary. Check your Cisco documentation if you have questions about how to configure and deploy private VLANs.
• VLAN modes - in Cisco IOS, there are only two modes an interface can operate in, "mode access" and "mode trunk". Access mode is for end devices or devices that will not require multiple VLANs. Trunk mode is used for passing multiple VLANs to other network devices, or for end devices that need to have membership to multiple VLANs at once. If you are wondering what mode to use, the mode is probably "mode access".
Cisco VLAN implementations
VLAN Definition
To define a VLAN on a cisco device, you need a VLAN ID, a VLAN name, ports you would like to participate in the VLAN, and the type of membership the port will have with the VLAN.
• Step 1 - Log into the router or switch in question and get into enable mode.
• Step 2 - Get into configuration mode using "conf t".
• Step 3 - Create your VLAN by entering "vlan X" where X is the ID you would like to assign the VLAN.
• Step 4 - Name your VLAN by entering "name
• Step 5 - If you want your new VLAN to be a private-vlan, you now enter "private-vlan primary" and "private-vlan association Y" where Y is the secondary VLAN you want to associate with the primary vlan. If you would like the private VLAN to be community based, you enter "private-vlan community" instead.
• Step 6 - Exit configuration mode by entering "end".
• Step 7 - Save your configuration to memory by entering "wr mem" and to the network if you have need using "wr net". You may have to supply additional information to write configurations to the network depending on your device configuration.
You have now created a vlan by assigning it an ID, and giving it a name. At this point, the VLAN has no special configuration to handle IP traffic, nor are there any ports that are members of the VLAN. The next section describes how you complete your vlan configuration.
VLAN Configuration
A VLAN isn't much use if you haven't assigned it an IP Address, the subnet netmask, and port membership. In normal network segment configurations on routers, individual interfaces or groups of interfaces (called channels) are assigned IP addresses . When you use VLANs, individual interfaces are members of VLANs and do not have individual IP addresses, and generally don't have access lists applied to them. Those features are usually reserved for the VLAN interfaces. The following steps detail one method of creating and configuring your VLAN interface. NOTE: These steps have already assumed that you have logged into the router, gotten into enable mode, and entered configuration mode. These specific examples are based on the Cisco 6500 series devices.
• Step 1 - Enter "Interface VlanX" where X is the VLAN ID you used in the VLAN definition above.
• Step 2 - This step is optional. Enter "description " where VLAN description details what the VLAN is going to be used for. You can just simply re-use the VLAN name you used above if you like.
• Step 3 - Enter "ip address
• Step 4 - The step is optional
• Create and apply an access list to the VLAN for inbound and outbound access controls. For a standard access list enter "access-group XXX in" and "access-group YYY out" where XXX and YYY corresponds to access-lists you have previously configured. Remember that the terms are taken in respect to the specific subnet or interface, so "in" means from the VLAN INTO the router, and "out" means from the router OUT to the VLAN.
• Step 5 - This step is optional. Enter the private VLAN mapping you would like to use if the port is part of a private VLAN. This should be the same secondary VLAN you associated with the primary VLAN in VLAN definition above. Enter "private-vlan mapping XX" where XX is the VLAN ID of the secondary VLAN you would like to associate with this VLAN.
• Step 6 - This step is optional. Configure HSRP and any other basic interface configurations you would normally use for your Cisco device.
• Step 7 - Exit configuration mode by entering "end".
• Step 8 - Save your configuration to memory by entering "wr mem" and to the network if you have need using "wr net". You may have to supply additional information to write configurations to the network depending on your device configuration.
Now you have your vlan defined and configured, but no physical ports are a member of the VLAN, so the VLAN still isn't of much use. Next port membership in the VLAN is described. IOS devices describe interfaces based on a technology and a port number, as with "FastEthernet3/1" or "GigabitEthernet8/16". Once you have determined which physical ports you want to be members of the VLAN you can use the following steps to configure it. NOTE: These steps have already assumed that you have logged into the router, gotten into enable mode, and entered configuration mode.
• Step 1 - Enter "Interface
• Step 2 - This step is optional. Enter "description
• Step 3 - This step depends on your equipment and IOS version, and requirements. Enter "switchport" if you need the interface to act as a switch port. Some hardware does not support switchport mode, and can only be used as a router port. Check your documentation if you don't know the difference between a router port and a switch port.
• Step 4 - Only use this step if you used step 3 above. Enter "switchport access vlan X" where X is the VLAN ID of the VLAN you want the port to be a member of.
• Step 5 - Only use this step if you used step 3 above. Enter "switchport mode access" to tell the port that you want it to be used as an access port.
• Step 6 - Exit configuration mode by entering "end".
• Step 7 - Save your configuration to memory by entering "wr mem" and to the network if you have need using "wr net". You may have to supply additional information to write configurations to the network depending on your device configuration.
• Step 1 - Enter "Interface
• Step 2 - This step is optional. Enter "description
• Step 3 - This step depends on your equipment and IOS version, and requirements. Enter "switchport" if you need the interface to act as a switch port. Some hardware does not support switchport mode, and can only be used as a router port. Check your documentation if you don't know the difference between a router port and a switch port.
• Step 4 - Only use this step if you used step 3 above. Enter "switchport trunk encapsulation dot1q". This tells the VLAN to use dot1q encapsulation for the VLAN, which is the industry standard encapsulation for trunking. There are other encapsulation options, but your equipment may not operate with non Cisco equipment if you use them.
• Step 5 - Only use this step if you used step 3 above. Enter "switchport trunk allowed vlan XX, YY, ZZ" where XX, YY, and ZZ are VLANs you want the trunk to include. You can define one or more VLANs to be allowed in the trunk.
• Step 6 - Only use this step if you used step 3 above. Enter "switchport mode trunk" to tell the port to operate as a VLAN trunk, and not as an access port.
• Step 7 - Exit configuration mode by entering "end".
• Step 8 - Save your configuration to memory by entering "wr mem" and to the
network if you have need using "wr net". You may have to supply additional information to write configurations to the network depending on your device configuration.
• Step 1 - Enter "Interface
• Step 2 - This step is optional. Enter "description
• Step 3 - This step depends on your equipment and IOS version, and requirements. Enter "switchport" if you need the interface to act as a switch port. Some hardware does not support switchport mode, and can only be used as a router port. Check your documentation if you don't know the difference between a router port and a switch port.
• Step 4 - Enter "switchport private-vlan host association XX YY" where XX is the primary VLAN you want to assign, YY is the secondary VLAN you want to associate with it.
• Step 5 - Enter "switchport mode private-vlan host" to force the port to operate as a private-vlan in host mode.
• Step 6 - Exit configuration mode by entering "end".
• Step 7 - Save your configuration to memory by entering "wr mem" and to the network if you have need using "wr net". You may have to supply additional information to write configurations to the network depending on your device configuration.
You should now have your VLAN properly implemented on a Cisco IOS device.
HP VLAN terminology
HP's Procurve line of switchgear is becoming more and more prevalent in enterprise and other business environments. Because of this, it isn't uncommon to have to get Cisco and Procurve hardware to integrate, and because of terminology this can be a challenge. Below some of the VLAN terminology is defined so there is less opportunity for confusion.
• VLAN ID - Fortunately, VLAN id's are pretty much the same everywhere, the only significant differences are the range of IDs that can be used. With Procurve devices, the number of VLANs is defined in the configuration. The default maximum VLANs supported on a Procurve device differs between models and firmware revisions, but is commonly set to 8. Newer Procurve hardware supports 4,096 VLAN ids, but only 256 concurrently defined VLANs on a single device. VLAN ID 1 is reserved for the "DEFAULT_VLAN" or the default administrative VLAN.
• VLAN names - VLAN names are text fields that assist technicians to identify VLANs. Procurve allows names up to 32 characters, but if you want it to properly display in menu configuration mode, you should probably limit the name to 12 characters.
• VLAN modes - Procurve has three modes of operation for VLANs on the chassis, Untagged, Tagged, and No. Untagged mode is cisco's access mode. This mode is used for ports that connect to end nodes, or devices that will not be passing VLAN traffic forward. Tagged mode is the same as Cisco's trunk mode. This mode is used for ports that are connecting to devices that will be passing VLAN traffic forward, or for trunking multiple VLANs. No mode means that the port in question has no association whatsoever with that VLAN.
• Special note on "trunk" - Lots of confusion surrounds the word "trunk" when you go between vendor equipment. In Cisco's case, trunking is only used with VLANs. If you want to group multiple ethernet ports into a single logical ethernet group, they call it a channel-group. This is regardless of whether FEC or LACP is used for the channel properties. Procurve uses "trunk" to define a group of ethernet ports when using the HP trunking protocol, and the term "Tagged" for what Cisco calls a VLAN trunk. Of course, these two technologies have nothing to do with each other, but because of naming conventions, confusion arises.
HP Procurve VLAN implementations
VLAN Definition
Most modern Procurve switches enable VLAN use by default, but if, for some reason, you have an older model, log into the switch, get into manager mode, go to the switch configuration menu (usually item 2), then the VLAN menu (usually item 8), then the VLAN support item (usually item 1), and make sure VLANs are enabled. If you change this setting, you will need to reboot the switch to get it to activate properly. The configuration menu is useful for these kinds of activities, troubleshooting, and other things, but is a little more difficult for configuring multiple switches or for using configuration templates, so the rest of the HP Procurve configuration details will be provided for the console configuration mode. Aside for enabling VLAN support as a whole, VLAN definitions and configuration are created in the same place, so the rest of the configuration examples will be provided under the VLAN configuration topic.
VLAN Configuration
Configuring VLANs on a modern Procurve is pretty simple, you must first define the VLAN, set its properties, and then set up membership for ports and the VLAN mode they will support. The following list should help you accomplish these tasks. NOTE: HP has defined its interface ports by using a module/port convention. If you have a non-modular chassis (such as the 3448cl) then ports are numbered only using numbers, such as 1 or 36. If the chassis is modular (such as the 5308) then the ports number is prepended with the module slot, such as A1 or H6. No reference to the type of switch port (ethernet, fast ethernet, gigabit ethernet) is used for port reference.
• Step 1 - Log into the switch and get into manager mode. If, after logging in, you are in the configuration menu, exit the configuration menu by selecting item 5 (in most cases) or by using the arrow keys on your keyboard to highlight the "Command Line (CLI)" item.
• Step 2 - Enter "conf t" to get into terminal configuration mode.
• Step 3 - Enter "vlan X" where X is the VLAN id of the VLAN you would like to create.
• Step 4 - Name your VLAN by entering "name "
• Step 5 - Give the VLAN an IP address by entering "ip address
• Step 6 - This step is optional. If you want to assign some end node ports to the VLAN enter "untagged
• Step 7 - This step is optional. If you want to assign some VLAN trunk ports to the VLAN enter "tagged
• Step 8 - Enter "exit" to leave VLAN configuration mode.
• Step 9 - Exit configuration mode by entering "exit" again.
• Step 10 - Save your configuration by entering "wr memory".
You have now successfully configured your HP Procurve VLAN
Vendor Summary
If you are going to integrate Cisco and HP Procurve hardware on the same network, and you intend to use VLANs there are only a few things you need to remember:
• For end nodes - Cisco uses "mode access", HP uses "untagged" mode.
• For VLAN dot1q trunks - Cisco uses "mode trunk", HP uses "tagged" mode.
• For no VLAN association - Cisco uses no notation at all, HP uses "no" mode in the configuration menu, or you have VLAN support turned off.
Next time you have to integrate the two with VLANs, this simple list should help keep you out of trouble.
Posted by: Wasim Javed
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